Science

Know that animals live all over the world — on land, in water, and in the air — and that every continent, even icy Antarctica, is home to animals, each suited to the conditions where they live

Know that animals make or find many different kinds of homes — birds build nests, rabbits dig burrows, bees live in hives, hermit crabs use empty shells, spiders spin webs — and that these shelters protect them and their young

Know that different animals have their babies in different ways — some lay eggs (birds, reptiles, fish, insects), some give birth to live young (most mammals) — and that babies may look like miniature adults or look very different from their parents

Understand the difference between wild animals, farm animals, and pets — wild animals find their own food and shelter in nature; farm animals are kept by people for food, wool, or eggs; pets are animals people keep for companionship — and know that wild animals should be observed from a distance

Know that some animals are nocturnal — active at night and sleeping during the day — and that nocturnal animals often have special features like big eyes (owls, tarsiers), large ears (bats, fennec foxes), or sensitive whiskers to help them find food in the dark

Know that many animals use camouflage — colours and patterns that help them blend into their surroundings — to hide from predators or to sneak up on prey, like a leaf insect that looks like a leaf or an Arctic hare that turns white in winter

Know some of the world's animal record-holders — the blue whale is the largest animal ever, the cheetah is the fastest land animal, the bee hummingbird is the smallest bird, the giraffe is the tallest — and compare their sizes to familiar objects

Explore animals of the Arctic and Antarctic — polar bears, Arctic foxes, and walruses in the north; penguins, seals, and albatrosses in the south — and understand how polar animals survive extreme cold through thick fur or blubber, huddling behaviour, and seasonal changes like white winter coats

Know that many animals make incredible journeys called migrations — Arctic terns fly from pole to pole, monarch butterflies travel thousands of miles across North America, wildebeest cross the Serengeti following rain, and humpback whales swim between polar feeding grounds and tropical breeding waters — and that these journeys are linked to food, breeding, and seasons

Understand that predators have evolved hunting strategies — wolves hunt in packs, chameleons use their long tongues, spiders build webs, crocodiles ambush at water's edge — and prey animals have evolved defences — porcupine spines, skunk spray, poison dart frog toxins, zebra stripes confusing predators, playing dead

Explore animals of the grasslands and savanna — lions, zebras, wildebeest, elephants, cheetahs in African savanna; bison and prairie dogs in American grasslands — understanding why large herds form on open grasslands and how predators and prey interact in these wide-open spaces

Explore animals of the desert — camels, fennec foxes, scorpions, rattlesnakes, meerkats — and understand how desert animals survive extreme heat and lack of water through being active at night, storing water or fat, burrowing underground during the day, and having large ears to lose heat

Know that insects and other minibeasts (spiders, worms, snails, centipedes) are the most numerous and diverse group of animals on Earth — there are more species of beetle than any other animal — and that they play vital roles as pollinators (bees, butterflies), decomposers (woodlice, worms), and food for other animals

Explore animals of the tropical rainforest — the most species-rich habitat on Earth — learning that the forest has layers (canopy, understory, forest floor) with different animals at each level: toucans and monkeys in the canopy, jaguars and frogs on the floor, and that rainforests are found near the equator

Understand that animals communicate in many different ways — birds sing to attract mates and defend territory, whales call across vast ocean distances, bees dance to show other bees where food is, wolves howl to keep the pack together, and fireflies flash light signals — and that communication is essential for survival

Understand that biodiversity — the variety of different species in an ecosystem — is essential for healthy ecosystems, and that keystone species (like wolves in Yellowstone, sea otters in kelp forests, or bees as pollinators) have an outsized impact on their ecosystem, so that losing one key species can cause a cascade of changes affecting many others

Know how people work to protect endangered animals — through national parks and marine reserves, captive breeding programmes (like those that saved the California condor and Arabian oryx), anti-poaching patrols, wildlife corridors connecting habitats, and laws banning trade in endangered species — and understand that children can contribute through habitat-friendly choices

Understand why some animal species become endangered or go extinct — habitat destruction, hunting/poaching, pollution, climate change, and invasive species — and know examples like the giant panda, mountain gorilla, Amur leopard, and the now-extinct dodo and thylacine, using the IUCN Red List as the system scientists use to track threatened species

Understand that invasive species are animals (or plants) that have been introduced to a place where they don't naturally belong — like grey squirrels outcompeting red squirrels in the UK, cane toads poisoning native predators in Australia, or rabbits devastating ecosystems in Australia — and that they can cause serious harm to native wildlife by competing for food, spreading disease, or having no natural predators

Understand that animals have structural adaptations (body features like the giraffe's long neck, eagle's talons, dolphin's streamlined shape), behavioural adaptations (migration, hibernation, tool use), and physiological adaptations (antifreeze in Arctic fish blood, echolocation in bats) — and that these developed over many generations through natural selection

Understand symbiosis — close relationships between different species — including mutualism (both benefit, like clownfish and anemones), commensalism (one benefits without harming the other, like remora fish riding sharks), and parasitism (one benefits at the other's expense, like ticks on deer) — and recognise these relationships in nature

Explore animal intelligence and complex behaviour — chimpanzees and crows use tools, dolphins recognise themselves in mirrors, octopuses solve puzzles and escape enclosures, elephants mourn their dead, meerkats teach their young to handle scorpions — understanding that many animals think, learn, and have social lives more complex than once believed

Introduce the Red Queen hypothesis — species must keep evolving just to maintain fitness relative to co-evolving partners; describe predator-prey arms races (cheetah speed vs gazelle speed, bat echolocation vs moth hearing jamming) and parasite-host co-evolution (myxomatosis in rabbits); explain Darwin's hawk moth and orchid as a classic example of mutualistic co-evolution predicting an unknown species; understand that co-evolution is a major driver of biological diversification

Quantify the current biodiversity crisis: extinction rates 100-1000x the background rate; explain methods for measuring biodiversity loss (species-area relationship, population viability analysis, IUCN Red List categories); evaluate rewilding case studies — Yellowstone wolf reintroduction triggering a trophic cascade that changed river courses; Iberian lynx recovery; describe minimum viable population theory and conservation triage; examine ethical debates in deciding which species to prioritise

Explain sexual selection as a form of natural selection: runaway selection for peacock tails, bird of paradise displays, and frog calls; explain kin selection and altruistic behaviour — why worker bees die to protect the hive, why meerkats stand guard at personal risk (Hamilton's rule, inclusive fitness); introduce game theory in animal behaviour using the hawk-dove model; define cognitive ethology and survey evidence for animal emotions, play, and culture

Explain how deep-sea animals cope with crushing pressure (no gas-filled spaces, flexible proteins, pressure-adapted enzymes); describe thermoregulation extremes — antifreeze glycoproteins in Antarctic fish, supercooling in wood frogs; introduce tardigrades and cryptobiosis (surviving desiccation, extreme temperatures, radiation, vacuum); survey other extremophiles (thermophiles at hydrothermal vents, halophiles in salt flats); consider what these organisms tell us about the limits of life

Explain cladistics: organisms are grouped by shared derived characters, not just similarity; how phylogenetic trees are built using molecular data (DNA sequence alignment) and the molecular clock; explain why birds are technically a group within dinosaurs (crown Avemetatarsalia); distinguish convergent evolution (unrelated species evolving similar traits) from parallel evolution; introduce horizontal gene transfer and why the tree of life is more accurately a web; explain why classification systems keep changing as new data emerge

Understand that dinosaurs were real animals that lived on Earth a very long time ago and are now extinct — none are alive today

Understand that fossils are the remains of ancient living things preserved in rock, and that scientists called palaeontologists study fossils to learn about dinosaurs

Recognise and name common well-known dinosaur species: Tyrannosaurus rex, Triceratops, Stegosaurus, and Brachiosaurus/Diplodocus, describing a basic feature of each

Sort dinosaurs into plant-eaters (herbivores) and meat-eaters (carnivores) by looking at clues like tooth shape — flat teeth for plants, sharp teeth for meat

Compare dinosaur sizes to familiar things — some dinosaurs were as tall as a house, others were as small as a chicken — and understand that dinosaurs came in a huge range of sizes

Distinguish real dinosaurs from fictional or commonly confused creatures — pterosaurs (flying reptiles) and plesiosaurs (marine reptiles) were not dinosaurs, and movie dinosaurs are not always accurate

Understand that fossils tell us not only about ancient animals but also about ancient environments — for example, marine fossils found on a mountaintop show that area was once underwater

Explain in simple terms how fossils form: an organism dies and is quickly buried in sediment; over millions of years minerals replace the remains and the sediment turns to rock, preserving the shape

Describe what coprolites are (fossilised dinosaur dung) and how palaeontologists analyse them to discover what dinosaurs ate, including plant fragments, bones, and seeds

Distinguish body fossils (preserved bones, teeth, shells) from trace fossils (footprints, trackways, eggs, burrows, coprolites) and explain what each type can tell scientists

Use dinosaur trackways (fossilised footprints) to make inferences about a dinosaur's size, speed, and behaviour — widely spaced prints suggest running, closely spaced suggest walking

Place the three periods of the Mesozoic Era — Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous — in order and understand that different dinosaurs lived in different periods, not all at the same time

Understand that different dinosaurs lived on different continents and that fossil discoveries around the world show dinosaurs were a global phenomenon, with some species found only in certain regions

Know who Mary Anning was — a pioneering fossil hunter from Lyme Regis, England, who discovered ichthyosaur and plesiosaur skeletons in the early 1800s and contributed to our understanding of prehistoric life

Analyse and interpret data from fossils to provide evidence of organisms and environments that existed long ago

Evaluate competing scientific explanations about dinosaurs by weighing fossil evidence — understanding that scientific knowledge changes as new fossils are discovered and new methods of analysis are developed

Read and create simple cladograms (branching diagrams) that show how groups of dinosaurs are related based on shared features, understanding that species sharing more features are more closely related

Understand that modern birds evolved from a group of small feathered theropod dinosaurs, using evidence such as the fossil Archaeopteryx, feathered dinosaur fossils from China, and shared skeletal features

Understand that palaeoart — scientific illustrations and models of dinosaurs — is based on fossil evidence but involves informed speculation about skin colour, feathers, and soft tissues that don't usually fossilise

Understand that rock layers (strata) form in sequence with the oldest at the bottom and the youngest at the top, and that fossils found in deeper layers are older — this is the principle of relative dating

Describe how palaeontologists work in the field and lab: prospecting for exposed fossils, careful excavation with hand tools, plaster jacketing for transport, preparation in the lab, and scientific description and publication

Classify dinosaurs into the two major groups based on hip structure: Saurischia (lizard-hipped, including theropods and sauropods) and Ornithischia (bird-hipped, including Triceratops and Stegosaurus)

Describe the Cretaceous–Palaeogene (K-Pg) extinction event approximately 66 million years ago, including the asteroid impact theory and its evidence (iridium layer, Chicxulub crater), and understand that this ended the reign of non-avian dinosaurs

Recognise that living things have changed over time and that fossils provide information about organisms that inhabited the Earth millions of years ago

Trace the evidence for the dinosaur-to-bird transition in depth: feathered theropods from the Liaoning Formation (China), the mix of dinosaur and bird features in Archaeopteryx, and the competing ground-up versus trees-down hypotheses for the origin of flight

Explain how radiometric dating works — radioactive isotopes decay at a known rate (half-life), so measuring the ratio of parent to daughter isotope in a rock or fossil gives an absolute age; distinguish between carbon-14 (useful up to ~50,000 years) and uranium-lead (useful for millions to billions of years)

Reconstruct an ancient ecosystem using multiple independent lines of evidence: isotope analysis of teeth to infer diet and migration, bone histology (growth rings) to estimate age and growth rate, coprolite chemistry for diet, and palaeobotany for habitat — understanding that palaeontology is an evidence-synthesis discipline

Compare the five major mass extinction events in Earth history (End-Ordovician, Late Devonian, End-Permian, End-Triassic, K-Pg), describe proposed kill mechanisms for each (glaciation, oceanic anoxia, volcanic mega-eruptions, asteroid impact), and explain why mass extinctions, while catastrophic, also open ecological space for subsequent evolutionary radiations

Evaluate the debate over what drove Pleistocene megafauna to extinction — human overkill, climate change, or a combination — using evidence from fossil records, ancient DNA, and archaeological sites; connect to the present-day sixth mass extinction and consider the ethics and feasibility of de-extinction using ancient DNA

Observe changes across the four seasons and describe weather associated with each season, including how day length varies

Use and share observations of local weather conditions to describe patterns over time, recording temperature, rainfall, and other conditions

Construct an argument supported by evidence for how plants and animals can change the environment to meet their needs

Develop a model to represent the shapes and kinds of land (mountains, valleys, plains) and bodies of water (rivers, lakes, oceans) in an area

Identify where water is found on Earth and understand that water can exist as solid (ice) or liquid, recognising water in oceans, rivers, glaciers, and underground

Compare and group different kinds of rocks based on their appearance and simple physical properties such as hardness, texture, and colour

Describe in simple terms how fossils are formed when things that have lived are trapped within rock over millions of years

Compare multiple solutions designed to slow or prevent wind or water from changing the shape of the land

Name and use vocabulary for the water cycle — evaporation, condensation, precipitation, collection, transpiration, water vapour, runoff, groundwater — and describe each stage of the cycle using these terms in the correct sequence

Recognise that soils are made from rocks and organic matter, and that different soils have different properties

Obtain and combine information to describe climates in different regions of the world, distinguishing between weather and climate

Represent data in tables and graphical displays to describe typical weather conditions expected during a particular season

Analyse and interpret data from maps to describe patterns of Earth's features, recognising that many features result from processes that occur over long periods

Make observations and measurements to provide evidence of the effects of weathering or the rate of erosion by water, ice, wind, or vegetation

Use vocabulary for Earth's geological processes and rock types — igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic, erosion, weathering, deposition, fossil, sediment, strata, permeable, impermeable — and apply these when explaining how rocks form and how landscapes change over time

Develop a model to describe ways the geosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere interact as connected Earth systems

Describe and graph the amounts of salt water and fresh water in various reservoirs to provide evidence about the distribution of water on Earth

Interpret cross-section diagrams of the Earth's interior, geological strata, and rock cycle; read and label layers (crust, mantle, outer core, inner core); understand that deeper layers in sedimentary sequences are older

Use a model to represent the relationship between the needs of different plants and animals and the places they live, connecting organism needs to habitat features

Communicate solutions that will reduce the impact of humans on the land, water, air, and other living things in the local environment

Explore and compare the differences between things that are living, dead, and things that have never been alive

Identify that most living things live in habitats to which they are suited and describe how habitats provide for basic needs and how organisms depend on each other

Describe how animals obtain their food from plants and other animals, using the idea of a simple food chain, and identify different sources of food

Name and use vocabulary for where living things are found — habitat, environment, microhabitat, conditions, woodland, ocean, desert, rainforest, pond — and use terms to describe what animals need to survive: food, water, shelter, space, and suitable conditions

Identify and name a variety of plants and animals in their habitats, including microhabitats such as under a log or in a pond

Recognise that environments can change and that this can sometimes pose dangers and challenges to living things

Construct and interpret food chains identifying producers, predators, and prey, and understand energy transfer between trophic levels

Recognise that living things can be grouped in a variety of ways based on observable features

Explore and use classification keys to identify, group, and name living things in local and wider environments

Use vocabulary for human impact on the environment — pollution, habitat destruction, deforestation, biodiversity, conservation, renewable energy, non-renewable energy, fossil fuel, carbon footprint, sustainability, endangered, extinct — and apply these when discussing environmental issues and human choices

Construct an argument that some animals form groups that help members survive, such as herds, packs, or colonies

Use vocabulary for feeding relationships and ecological roles — producer, consumer, predator, prey, herbivore, carnivore, omnivore, decomposer, food chain, food web, nutrient cycle — and describe how energy and matter flow through ecosystems using these terms

Read and interpret food web diagrams — identify producers, primary and secondary consumers, and decomposers; trace energy flow along food chains within the web; predict the effect of removing or adding a species

Describe differences in the life cycles of mammals, amphibians, insects, and birds, comparing metamorphosis with direct development

Describe the life process of reproduction in some plants and animals, including sexual and asexual reproduction in plants

Develop a model to describe the movement of matter among plants, animals, decomposers, and the environment in an ecosystem

Give reasons for classifying plants and animals based on specific characteristics, using evidence to justify classification decisions

Describe how living things are classified into broad groups (micro-organisms, plants, animals) according to common observable characteristics, similarities, and differences

Obtain and combine information about ways individual communities use science ideas to protect the Earth's resources and environment

Construct and interpret food webs showing the interdependence of organisms in an ecosystem, explaining how a change in one population affects others

Explain the importance of insect pollination for plant reproduction and human food security, and discuss the consequences of pollinator decline

Explain how energy is transferred between trophic levels in a food chain, why energy is lost at each stage, and use pyramids of biomass/numbers to represent this

Describe the water cycle, tracing water through evaporation, condensation, precipitation, surface runoff, and transpiration in plants, explaining how the sun drives the cycle

Explain how environmental change can outpace a species' ability to adapt through natural selection, leading to extinction, using historical and contemporary examples

Describe the carbon cycle, tracing carbon through photosynthesis, respiration, feeding, decomposition, and combustion, and explain the role of each process

Explain natural selection as the mechanism of evolution: heritable variation + competition for resources + differential survival and reproduction = change in allele frequency over generations

Describe the main types of evidence for evolution: the fossil record (change over time), comparative anatomy (homologous structures), and the geographic distribution of related species

Explain how environmental change (climate change, habitat loss, pollution) affects the distribution of species, including range shifts, local extinction, and invasive species

Explain variation within and between species, distinguishing between continuous variation (e.g. height) and discontinuous variation (e.g. blood group), and between genetic and environmental causes

Explain what biodiversity means, why high biodiversity makes ecosystems more resilient, and describe the ways human activity threatens biodiversity (habitat destruction, pollution, invasive species, climate change)

Explain how organisms affect and are affected by their environment, including the bioaccumulation of toxic materials (e.g. pesticides, heavy metals) through food chains

Describe the relationship between chromosomes, genes, and DNA in heredity, including the double helix structure of DNA and the historical roles of Watson, Crick, Franklin, and Wilkins

Explain genetic mutation as a random change in DNA sequence, describe causes of mutation (e.g. radiation, chemicals, copying errors), and explain that most mutations are neutral, some harmful, and a few beneficial

Explain how alleles are inherited in sexual reproduction and use Punnett squares to predict the probability of offspring inheriting a characteristic, including dominant and recessive alleles

Make observations to determine the effect of sunlight on Earth's surface, noticing that sunlight warms the ground, water, and objects

Use tools and materials to design and build a structure that will reduce the warming effect of sunlight on an area, such as a shade or shelter

Name and use vocabulary for types of energy and energy transfer — kinetic energy, potential energy, heat energy, light energy, sound energy, electrical energy, chemical energy, stored energy, energy transfer, energy transformation — and describe energy changes in familiar situations using these terms

Construct a simple series electrical circuit, identifying and naming its basic parts: cells, wires, bulbs, switches, and buzzers

Identify common appliances that run on electricity and understand that electricity is a form of energy that powers devices in everyday life

Recognise that a switch opens and closes a circuit, controlling whether a lamp lights or a buzzer sounds

Identify whether or not a lamp will light in a simple series circuit, based on whether the lamp is part of a complete loop with a battery

Recognise some common conductors and insulators, and associate metals with being good conductors of electricity

Observe and provide evidence that energy can be transferred from place to place by sound, light, heat, and electric currents

Draw and read simple circuit diagrams using standard symbols for cells, bulbs, switches, buzzers, and wires; identify whether a circuit is complete or broken from a diagram; match circuit diagrams to physical circuits

Use evidence to construct an explanation relating the speed of an object to the energy of that object

Use technical vocabulary for electrical circuits — circuit, component, cell, battery, current, voltage, resistance, conductor, insulator, switch, series circuit, parallel circuit — and apply these when describing, drawing, and designing working circuits

Apply scientific ideas to design, test, and refine a device that converts energy from one form to another

Ask questions and predict outcomes about the changes in energy that occur when objects collide

Use recognised symbols when representing a simple circuit in a diagram, including cell, wire, bulb, switch, buzzer, and motor

Associate the brightness of a lamp or volume of a buzzer with the number and voltage of cells used in a series circuit

Compare and give reasons for variations in how circuit components function, including brightness of bulbs, loudness of buzzers, and switch positions

Identify the main energy stores (kinetic, gravitational potential, elastic potential, thermal, chemical, nuclear, electromagnetic) and the pathways by which energy is transferred between stores (mechanically, electrically, by heating, by radiation)

Explain the principle of conservation of energy (energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred between stores), and describe how energy is dissipated as thermal energy to the surroundings in all real processes

Understand that electric current is the rate of flow of charge (measured in amperes using an ammeter), and that potential difference (voltage) is the energy transferred per unit charge (measured in volts using a voltmeter)

Explain static electricity as the build-up of electric charge through friction, describe how charged objects attract or repel each other, and relate static discharge to everyday phenomena such as lightning

Distinguish between renewable energy resources (solar, wind, hydroelectric, tidal, geothermal, biomass) and non-renewable resources (coal, oil, gas, nuclear), comparing their advantages, disadvantages, and environmental impacts

Calculate energy efficiency as the ratio of useful output energy to total input energy, construct and interpret Sankey diagrams, and calculate work done using work = force × distance

Plan and carry out experiments to measure energy transferred during heating, including using the equation Q = mcΔT, recording temperature changes over time, and evaluating sources of error

Describe and compare the three mechanisms of heat transfer — conduction (particle vibration through solids), convection (fluid movement in liquids/gases), and radiation (infrared waves) — and explain that the rate of transfer depends on temperature difference

Define power as the rate of energy transfer (power = energy ÷ time, measured in watts), and compare energy transfer rates in different everyday contexts

Apply Ohm's Law (V = IR) to calculate current, voltage, or resistance in a simple circuit, and explain that resistance opposes the flow of current

Describe and apply the rules for current, voltage, and resistance in series and parallel circuits, and explain the practical uses of each circuit type

Understand that pushes and pulls are forces that can change the speed or direction of an object's motion, and compare the effects of different strengths and directions

Name and describe forces using precise vocabulary — force, push, pull, twist, stretch, squash, contact force, non-contact force, gravity, weight, friction, air resistance, upthrust — and distinguish between forces that require physical contact and forces that act at a distance

Analyse data to determine if a design solution works as intended to change the speed or direction of an object with a push or pull

Draw and interpret force diagrams showing forces as labelled arrows — where the arrow's length represents the force's magnitude and its direction shows which way the force acts; show multiple forces on one object; identify from the diagram whether forces are balanced (equal arrows in opposite directions, no resultant) or unbalanced (arrows of different sizes, producing a resultant); represent the resultant with a single arrow

Compare how things move on different surfaces, noticing that some surfaces create more friction than others

Notice that some forces need contact between two objects (contact forces) while magnetic forces can act at a distance (non-contact forces)

Observe how magnets attract or repel each other and attract some materials and not others

Describe magnets as having two poles (north and south) and predict whether two magnets will attract or repel based on which poles face each other

Make observations and measurements of an object's motion to provide evidence that a pattern can be used to predict future motion

Plan and conduct an investigation to provide evidence of the effects of balanced and unbalanced forces on the motion of an object

Explain that unsupported objects fall towards the Earth because of the force of gravity acting between the Earth and the falling object

Identify the effects of air resistance, water resistance, and friction, and understand that these forces act between moving surfaces to oppose motion

Recognise that some mechanisms including levers, pulleys, and gears allow a smaller force to have a greater effect

Use technical vocabulary for force and motion — balanced forces, unbalanced forces, resultant force, acceleration, deceleration, speed, moment, lever, fulcrum, mechanical advantage — and apply these when explaining and predicting how forces affect the motion and position of objects

Read and plot distance-time graphs for moving objects; interpret the gradient (steepness) of a line as speed; identify stationary periods (horizontal sections), constant speed (straight diagonal lines), and relative speeds by comparing gradients; calculate average speed from the gradient of a straight-line segment using speed = distance ÷ time

Explain relative motion — how the apparent speed and direction of an object depends on the observer's own motion — using everyday examples such as trains and cars passing

Calculate average speed using the equation speed = distance ÷ time, represent journeys on distance-time graphs, and interpret gradient as speed and flat sections as stationary periods

Distinguish between mass (amount of matter, measured in kg) and weight (gravitational force, measured in N), use the equation weight = mass × gravitational field strength, and explain why g differs on other planets and stars

Describe forces as vector quantities with both magnitude and direction, distinguish between balanced forces (zero resultant, no change in motion) and unbalanced forces (non-zero resultant, causes acceleration or deceleration)

Describe magnetic poles (north and south), explain attraction and repulsion between poles, describe magnetic field lines plotted using a compass, and explain the Earth's magnetic field and its practical uses

Describe the magnetic effect of an electric current (a current-carrying wire produces a magnetic field), and investigate how the strength of an electromagnet depends on current, number of coil turns, and core material

Plan and carry out investigations into forces, including measuring force with a newton meter, investigating Hooke's Law, and collecting and interpreting motion data to test Newton's laws

State and apply Newton's First Law (an object stays at rest or constant velocity unless acted on by a resultant force) and Second Law (force = mass × acceleration), including the relationship between mass, force, and acceleration

State and apply Newton's Third Law: every force has an equal and opposite reaction force acting on a different object, distinguishing action-reaction pairs from balanced forces

Calculate the turning effect (moment = force × perpendicular distance), explain how pressure is transmitted equally in liquids (Pascal's principle) and the concept of atmospheric pressure, and describe Hooke's Law (extension ∝ force up to the elastic limit)

Explain forces associated with deforming objects (elastic and inelastic deformation), thermal expansion and contraction of materials, and how fluid pressure acts in all directions and increases with depth

Explain the motor effect as the force on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field, and describe how this principle is used in electric motors and loudspeakers

What is a minibeast? Small creatures without backbones, found in gardens, parks, and woodland. Bug hunts — searching under logs, stones, and leaves using magnifying glasses to observe minibeasts up close.

Recognising and naming common minibeasts: ladybird, ant, bee, butterfly, spider, snail, worm, woodlouse, caterpillar, beetle. Building positive attitudes toward all minibeasts, not just the 'pretty' ones.

Where minibeasts live: micro-habitats. Different minibeasts prefer different conditions — under logs (damp, dark), in soil (underground), on leaves (sunny), in pond water (wet). The idea that you find different creatures in different places.

Minibeasts in the food chain: simple garden food chains. A caterpillar eats a leaf, a bird eats the caterpillar. The idea that minibeasts are food for other animals, and that minibeasts eat things too.

How minibeasts move: crawling (ants, beetles), flying (butterflies, bees), slithering (worms, slugs), jumping (grasshoppers, fleas), burrowing (earthworms). Counting legs as a first step toward grouping creatures.

Caterpillar to butterfly: the life cycle of a butterfly as an observable transformation. Egg → caterpillar → chrysalis → butterfly. The idea that one creature can change its whole form. Classroom butterfly kits, The Very Hungry Caterpillar.

Caring for minibeasts: observing minibeasts gently, handling them carefully, putting them back where you found them. Why minibeasts matter — they help gardens grow, break down dead leaves, and feed other animals.

The insect body plan: all insects share three body parts (head, thorax, abdomen), six legs attached to the thorax, and antennae on the head. Most have wings. They have an exoskeleton — a hard outer shell — instead of bones inside.

Not all minibeasts are insects: distinguishing insects from other minibeasts. Spiders have 8 legs and 2 body parts (arachnids), woodlice have 14 legs (crustaceans), worms have no legs, snails have a shell and one foot. The 'Is it an insect?' sorting game.

Using classification keys to identify minibeasts. Branching yes/no questions: 'Does it have legs?' → 'How many legs?' → 'Does it have wings?' Dichotomous keys as a systematic tool for sorting and identifying creatures.

Social insects: how ants and bees live and work together in colonies. Queens, workers, and drones. Division of labour — some gather food, some build, some guard. Ant tunnels and bee hives as organised homes. Parallels to human teamwork.

Bees and pollination: how flowers and insects depend on each other. Bees visit flowers for nectar, pollen sticks to their bodies and transfers to the next flower. Without pollination many plants cannot make seeds or fruit. Why bees matter for the food we eat.

Camouflage, warning colours, and mimicry: how insects survive by hiding or sending visual signals. Stick insects look like twigs, leaf insects look like leaves. Wasps have warning stripes; hoverflies mimic wasps but are harmless. The 'can you spot it?' challenge.

Insect life cycles — complete metamorphosis in detail. Egg → larva → pupa → adult. The larva (caterpillar, grub, maggot) looks completely different from the adult. Inside the pupa the body is rebuilt. Butterflies, beetles, flies, and ladybirds all undergo complete metamorphosis.

Incredible insects — record-breakers and superpowers. Dung beetles are the strongest animals relative to body weight. Dragonflies are among the fastest flying insects. Fleas can jump over 150 times their own body length. Bombardier beetles spray boiling chemicals. The 'wow factor' of the insect world.

Insects in ecosystems: the many roles insects play. Pollinators (bees, butterflies, hoverflies), decomposers (dung beetles, fly larvae), food source for birds, bats, fish, and frogs, and pest controllers (ladybirds eating aphids). The thought experiment: what would happen if all insects disappeared?

The most successful animals on Earth: there are roughly one million described insect species, and scientists estimate 5–10 million may exist. More insect species than all other animal groups combined. Why so many? Small body size means less food needed, fast reproduction with many offspring, flight allows reaching new habitats, and the exoskeleton is incredibly versatile.

Threats to insects and conservation: insect populations are declining worldwide. Causes include habitat loss, pesticide use, light pollution disrupting nocturnal insects, and climate change. Pollinator decline threatens food production. What children can do: plant pollinator-friendly gardens, reduce pesticide use, participate in citizen science like the Big Butterfly Count.

Adaptation and evolution in insects: peppered moths as a famous example of natural selection (dark moths survived better on soot-covered trees during the Industrial Revolution). Stick insects evolved to look like twigs. Ant-mimicking spiders evolved to fool predators. How small changes over many generations lead to remarkable disguises.

Insect communication and behaviour: bees perform a waggle dance to tell hive-mates where flowers are. Ants lay pheromone trails for others to follow. Fireflies flash light patterns to find mates. Crickets chirp by rubbing their wings. Monarch butterflies migrate thousands of miles across continents. How insects 'talk' without words.

Complete vs incomplete metamorphosis. Complete: egg → larva → pupa → adult (butterflies, beetles, flies). Incomplete: egg → nymph → adult — the nymph looks like a small version of the adult and moults as it grows (grasshoppers, dragonflies, crickets). Why do some insects transform completely while others grow gradually?

Insect anatomy in depth: compound eyes made of thousands of tiny lenses, spiracles (breathing holes along the body), diverse mouthparts (chewing mandibles in beetles, sucking proboscis in butterflies, sponging pad in flies), and moulting the exoskeleton to grow. Biomimicry — how engineers copy insect designs.

Name and distinguish the three states of matter — solid, liquid, and gas — using properties vocabulary: hard, rigid, runny, flows, keeps its shape, fills its container; use 'change of state' to describe what happens when materials are heated or cooled

Describe simple physical properties of everyday materials such as hard/soft, stretchy/stiff, shiny/dull, rough/smooth, waterproof/absorbent, transparent/opaque

Distinguish between an object and the material from which it is made, understanding that objects can be made from different materials

Identify and name a variety of everyday materials including wood, plastic, glass, metal, water, and rock

Compare and group everyday materials based on their simple physical properties

Investigate how the shapes of solid objects can be changed by squashing, bending, twisting, and stretching

Identify and compare the suitability of everyday materials for particular uses, explaining why specific materials are chosen for specific purposes

Observe and describe that some materials change state when heated or cooled, and measure the temperature at which changes occur in degrees Celsius

Draw and interpret particle diagrams — dot representations showing the arrangement, spacing, and movement of particles in solids (close, regular, vibrating in place), liquids (close, random, flowing past each other), and gases (widely spaced, moving rapidly in all directions) — and use these diagrams to explain observable properties such as fixed shape, fixed volume, and compressibility

Use process vocabulary for changes of state and material separation — dissolve, solution, soluble, insoluble, evaporate, condense, melt, freeze, filter, sieve, mixture, separate — and understand precisely what each term describes, including the important distinction between dissolving and melting

Give reasons, based on evidence from comparative and fair tests, for the particular uses of everyday materials including metals, wood, and plastic

Plan and conduct an investigation to classify different kinds of materials by their observable properties

Observe that an object made of a small set of pieces can be disassembled and made into a new object, understanding that the pieces still exist

Compare and group materials as solids, liquids, or gases based on their observable properties and behaviour

Identify the role of evaporation and condensation in the water cycle, and associate the rate of evaporation with temperature

Understand that some materials dissolve in liquid to form a solution, and describe how to recover a substance from a solution by evaporation

Explain that some changes result in the formation of new materials and are not usually reversible, such as burning, rusting, and reactions with acid

Demonstrate that dissolving, mixing, and changes of state are reversible changes where no new materials are formed

Use knowledge of solids, liquids, and gases to decide how mixtures might be separated through filtering, sieving, and evaporating

Compare and group everyday materials based on advanced properties: hardness, solubility, transparency, electrical and thermal conductivity, and response to magnets

Use technical vocabulary to describe and compare material properties — conductor, insulator, thermal, electrical, transparent, opaque, translucent, soluble, insoluble, magnetic, flexible, rigid, density — and apply these terms precisely when selecting and justifying materials for particular purposes

Measure and provide evidence that the total weight of matter is conserved regardless of the type of change (heating, cooling, or mixing)

Develop a model to describe that matter is made of particles too small to be seen, and that this explains properties of solids, liquids, and gases

Distinguish between physical changes (reversible, no new substances formed) and chemical changes (new substances formed, often irreversible), using conservation of mass to understand both types

Select and carry out appropriate separation techniques for different types of mixtures: filtration (insoluble solids), distillation (liquids by boiling point), crystallisation (dissolved solids), and chromatography (coloured substances)

Distinguish between pure substances and mixtures, identify formulations as useful mixtures with precise compositions, and use melting and boiling points to test for purity

Use the particle model to explain the properties of solids, liquids, and gases — including differences in arrangement, movement, and spacing — and apply the model to explain density, compressibility, and the anomalous expansion of water

Explain the differences between atoms, elements, and compounds; describe the simple Bohr model of the atom (nucleus with protons and neutrons, electrons in shells); and write and interpret chemical symbols and simple formulae

Compare the physical and chemical properties of metals and non-metals, explaining metallic properties (malleability, lustre, conductivity) and how position in the periodic table predicts reactivity

Describe the organisation of the periodic table into periods and groups, explain the contribution of Mendeleev, and use the table to identify metals, non-metals, and predict patterns in reactivity

Explain melting, freezing, boiling, condensing, and sublimation using the particle model, interpreting heating and cooling curves to identify melting and boiling points

Explain that many raw materials (metals, fossil fuels, minerals) are finite resources, describe the environmental costs of extraction, and evaluate the benefits of recycling and the circular economy

Describe the composition of Earth's atmosphere (mainly nitrogen and oxygen, with small amounts of CO₂ and other gases), explain how human activity increases CO₂, and describe the impact on global climate

Describe and write word equations for the reactions of acids with metals, alkalis (neutralisation), and metal oxides/hydroxides, identifying the salt produced in each case

Distinguish between exothermic reactions (release energy, temperature rises) and endothermic reactions (absorb energy, temperature falls), with everyday and industrial examples

Define acids and alkalis in terms of hydrogen ion concentration, describe the pH scale (0–14), and explain how indicators are used to identify and measure acidity or alkalinity

Explain the rock cycle: how igneous rocks form from magma, sedimentary rocks from compressed sediment, and metamorphic rocks from heat and pressure, and how all rock types can transform into one another over geological time

Identify and describe four types of chemical reaction: combustion (burning in oxygen), oxidation (gain of oxygen), thermal decomposition (breaking down by heat), and displacement (more reactive metal replaces less reactive one)

Order common metals in the reactivity series and explain how a more reactive metal displaces a less reactive one; describe how carbon is used to extract metals from their oxides in industry

Describe the properties and uses of ceramics (hard, brittle, heat-resistant), polymers (flexible, lightweight, variable), and composites (combine properties of constituent materials), giving real-world examples of each

Know that oceans are huge bodies of salt water that cover most of Earth's surface, and that the ocean is home to an enormous number of living things

Understand that ocean animals need food, shelter, and the right conditions to survive — just like land animals — and that different parts of the ocean provide for different animals' needs

Recognise that the ocean is home to an amazing variety of animals — from tiny seahorses and colourful clownfish to enormous whales and sharks — and that ocean animals come in many shapes and sizes

Describe a simple ocean food chain: tiny plants (phytoplankton) are eaten by small animals, which are eaten by bigger fish, which are eaten by top predators like sharks — showing that all ocean life depends on others for food

Know that whales and dolphins are mammals, not fish — they breathe air, are warm-blooded, and feed their babies milk — even though they live in the ocean

Know what a coast or beach is — the place where land meets the ocean — and that different coasts can be sandy, rocky, or muddy, each with different plants and animals

Explore rock pools (tide pools) as small ocean habitats where crabs, anemones, starfish, and small fish can be found, and understand that these creatures are adapted to survive crashing waves and changing water levels

Classify ocean animals into major groups: fish (breathe through gills, have scales), marine mammals (breathe air, warm-blooded, feed milk), and invertebrates (no backbone — jellyfish, octopuses, crabs, starfish)

Understand ocean food webs: multiple interconnected food chains where energy flows from phytoplankton (producers) through zooplankton, small fish, and large predators, and that removing one species affects the whole web

Understand that the ocean has different zones depending on depth and light: the sunlight zone near the surface where most life lives, the twilight zone where light fades, and the midnight zone of total darkness

Name and locate the five oceans — Pacific (largest), Atlantic, Indian, Southern, and Arctic (smallest and coldest) — on a world map, and understand that they are all connected as one global ocean

Understand that ocean animals have special adaptations for their environment: streamlined bodies for fast swimming, camouflage to hide from predators, blubber to keep warm in cold seas, and tentacles or suckers to catch prey

Know that the ocean has tides (water level rises and falls twice a day, caused mainly by the Moon's gravity), waves (caused by wind), and currents (rivers of water flowing through the ocean that carry warmth and nutrients around the world)

Know that the ocean floor is not flat — it has mountains, valleys, and the deepest trenches on Earth — and that the deepest point is the Mariana Trench, deeper than Mount Everest is tall

Know that coral reefs are built by tiny living animals called coral polyps, that reefs are home to more species than almost any other ocean habitat, and that they are sometimes called the 'rainforests of the sea'

Understand the connection between the ocean and climate: the ocean absorbs heat and carbon dioxide, drives weather patterns through evaporation, and ocean currents distribute warmth around the planet — making the ocean Earth's climate engine

Understand ocean ecosystems as interconnected systems where living things (producers, consumers, decomposers) and non-living factors (temperature, salinity, light, currents) all interact, and that changes to one part affect the whole system

Understand how people protect the ocean: marine protected areas limit fishing and pollution, sustainable fishing prevents overharvesting, beach clean-ups reduce plastic, and international agreements aim to reduce carbon emissions that cause ocean acidification

Identify ways humans harm the ocean — plastic pollution, overfishing, oil spills, and ocean acidification from carbon dioxide — and understand that most ocean pollution comes from land-based activities, not just ships

Know that many ocean animals undertake remarkable migrations — humpback whales travel thousands of miles between feeding and breeding grounds, sea turtles return to the same beach where they hatched to lay eggs — and understand these journeys are linked to seasonal food supplies and reproduction

Explore life in the deep sea: animals that make their own light (bioluminescence), creatures adapted to crushing pressure and total darkness, and hydrothermal vents where life thrives without sunlight

Know that oceanographers and marine biologists study the ocean using submarines, remotely operated vehicles (ROVs), satellites, and diving, and that much of the ocean remains unexplored — we know more about the Moon's surface than the deep ocean floor

Explain thermohaline circulation (the global conveyor belt) as driven by temperature and salinity differences that cause dense water to sink; describe how the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) transfers heat from the tropics toward Europe; explain that oceans absorb more than 90% of excess heat and ~25% of CO2 from human emissions; explore what would happen to Northern European climates if circulation weakened

Contrast photosynthesis (energy from sunlight) with chemosynthesis (energy from oxidising chemicals like hydrogen sulphide); describe hydrothermal vent communities: chemoautotrophic bacteria form the base of a food web supporting tube worms, giant clams, and vent crabs with no sunlight; explore what deep-sea life tells us about the origin of life on Earth; explain why NASA studies ocean vents as analogues for potential life around hydrothermal activity on Europa and Enceladus

Explain the mutualistic symbiosis between coral polyps and photosynthetic zooxanthellae; describe how heat stress causes bleaching (corals expel zooxanthellae and turn white); explain ocean acidification chemistry: CO2 dissolves in seawater to form carbonic acid, lowering pH and dissolving calcium carbonate skeletons; connect reef loss to the collapse of habitat for ~25% of marine species; evaluate current reef restoration efforts

Quantify energy transfer efficiency through trophic levels (~10% rule); explain trophic cascades: how removing an apex predator triggers a chain of ecosystem changes (sea otters → sea urchin explosion → kelp forest collapse); define 'fishing down the food web'; evaluate evidence for ocean rewilding — shark reintroduction, whale recovery driving nutrient cycling; understand why ecosystem-based fisheries management is needed

Explain how crewed submersibles (Alvin, Deepsea Challenger) and remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) allow exploration of the deep; describe acoustic seafloor mapping using sonar and why only ~25% of the ocean floor has been mapped at high resolution; explore why the deep ocean is harder to explore than the surface of the Moon (pressure, cold, darkness, communication difficulties); survey astrobiology missions targeting ocean worlds in our solar system

Identify and name common animals from major groups: fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals

Identify and name common wild and garden plants, including deciduous and evergreen trees

Name and use vocabulary for what makes something living — alive, dead, never been alive, movement, nutrition, growth, reproduction, sensitivity, excretion — and apply these terms when classifying objects and explaining why plants and animals count as living things

Understand what plants and animals (including humans) need to survive: water, food, air, and suitable conditions

Classify common animals as carnivores (eat meat), herbivores (eat plants), or omnivores (eat both)

Identify and describe the basic structure of common flowering plants (roots, stem, leaves, flowers) and trees (roots, trunk, branches, leaves)

Describe and compare the external body structure of common animals across groups (fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals)

Identify, name, and locate basic parts of the human body and associate each body part with its sense

Recognise that animals, including humans, have offspring which grow into adults, and describe basic animal life stages

Observe and describe how seeds and bulbs grow into mature plants through stages of germination and growth

Understand that plants need water, light, and a suitable temperature to grow and stay healthy

Observe that young plants and animals resemble their parents but are not identical, recognising inherited similarities and individual differences

Develop models to describe that organisms have unique and diverse life cycles but all share the common stages of birth, growth, reproduction, and death

Identify and describe the functions of different parts of flowering plants: roots absorb water and nutrients, stems transport materials, leaves make food, flowers enable reproduction

Understand the life cycle of flowering plants including pollination, seed formation, and seed dispersal

Understand that animals, including humans, need the right types and amounts of nutrition, and that animals cannot make their own food

Use vocabulary for classifying animals and describing life cycles — vertebrate, invertebrate, mammal, bird, reptile, amphibian, fish, insect, arachnid, larva, pupa, metamorphosis, gestation, offspring, complete metamorphosis, incomplete metamorphosis — and apply these correctly when sorting and comparing organisms

Draw and interpret life cycle diagrams for flowering plants, insects (complete and incomplete metamorphosis), birds, and mammals — labelling stages, describing transitions, and comparing cycles across species

Identify that humans and some other animals have skeletons and muscles for support, protection, and movement

Explore and compare the requirements of plants for life and growth: air, light, water, nutrients from soil, and room to grow

Investigate how water is transported within plants, using observations such as coloured water being drawn up through a stem

Identify how animals and plants are adapted to suit their environment and understand that adaptation may lead to evolution over time

Use evidence to explain how variations in characteristics among individuals of the same species may provide advantages in surviving, finding mates, and reproducing

Use vocabulary for variation and inheritance — inherited characteristic, acquired characteristic, variation, offspring, trait, species, breed, genetic, environment — and apply these when comparing organisms and explaining similarities and differences within and between species

Analyse and interpret data to provide evidence that plants and animals have traits inherited from parents and that variation of these traits exists in a group of similar organisms

Describe the simple functions of the basic parts of the human digestive system: mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine

Identify the different types of human teeth (incisors, canines, molars) and describe their functions in eating

Use evidence to support the explanation that traits can be influenced by the environment as well as inheritance

Describe the changes as humans develop to old age, including the stages of the human life cycle

Use a model to describe that animals receive information through their senses, process it in their brain, and respond in different ways

Construct an argument that plants and animals have internal and external structures that function to support survival, growth, behaviour, and reproduction

Use technical vocabulary for the major organ systems — organ, organ system, circulatory system, digestive system, respiratory system, skeletal system, muscular system, nutrient, oxygen, carbon dioxide, blood vessel, artery, vein, capillary, enzyme — and describe the function of each system using these terms

Use technical vocabulary for evolution and natural selection — adaptation, evolution, natural selection, extinct, extinction, fossil record, species, common ancestor, mutation, variation — and explain the mechanism of natural selection using these terms in the correct sequence

Recognise the impact of diet, exercise, drugs, and lifestyle on the way human bodies function

Identify and name the main parts of the human circulatory system and describe the functions of the heart, blood vessels, and blood

Describe how nutrients and water are transported within animals, including the role of the circulatory system in delivering nutrients from digestion

Use models to describe that energy in animals' food was once energy from the sun, transferred through plants or other organisms

Support an argument that plants get the materials they need for growth chiefly from air and water, not from the soil

Understand that all living organisms are made of cells and use a light microscope to observe, interpret, and record cell structure

Describe the functions of the main components of plant and animal cells: cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, vacuole, mitochondria, ribosomes, and chloroplasts

Explain photosynthesis as the process by which plants use light energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen, and describe how mineral nutrients are absorbed through roots

Compare plant and animal cells, identifying shared features and structures unique to plant cells (cell wall, vacuole, chloroplasts)

Describe the hierarchical organisation of multicellular organisms: cells → tissues → organs → organ systems → organism

Describe the organs of the human digestive system and how food is physically and chemically digested, including the role of enzymes as biological catalysts

Explain biomechanics — the interaction between skeleton and muscles at joints, including the roles of tendons (attach muscle to bone) and ligaments (attach bone to bone)

Explain that muscles work in antagonistic pairs — one contracts while the other relaxes — to produce movement, using the bicep and tricep as a key example

Identify the seven components of a healthy diet — carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, minerals, dietary fibre, and water — and explain the role of each in the body

Describe the structure and four main functions of the human skeleton: support, protection, movement, and production of blood cells in bone marrow

Calculate and evaluate energy intake and requirements in a healthy daily diet, interpreting food labels and nutritional data

Explain the health consequences of an imbalanced diet including obesity (excess energy), starvation (severe energy deficit), and deficiency diseases (lack of specific nutrients, e.g. scurvy, rickets)

Explain how unicellular organisms such as bacteria and Amoeba carry out all the functions of life within a single cell

Use a light microscope correctly to prepare, focus, and examine biological specimens, including making accurate labelled drawings at an appropriate magnification

Describe the structure of the heart (four chambers, valves, coronary arteries) and explain how it pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs and oxygenated blood to the body in a double circulatory system

Explain the role of gut microbiome bacteria in digestion, including breaking down dietary fibre and contributing to a healthy gut environment

Describe the structure of the human gas exchange system (trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli) and explain how the mechanism of breathing — using pressure changes from rib and diaphragm movement — moves air in and out of the lungs

Explain aerobic respiration as the process by which organisms release energy from glucose using oxygen, producing carbon dioxide and water; write and interpret the word equation: glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water

Explain diffusion as the net movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to lower concentration, and describe its role in moving materials (oxygen, carbon dioxide, glucose) in and between cells

Describe the structure of a flower and explain the processes of wind and insect pollination, fertilisation, seed and fruit formation, and seed dispersal in plants

Explain anaerobic respiration in animals as the incomplete breakdown of glucose to lactic acid when oxygen is in short supply, causing muscle fatigue; contrast this with aerobic respiration in terms of energy yield and products

Explain how the human body detects and responds to environmental changes including temperature, including the role of the skin in temperature regulation (sweating, shivering, vasodilation, vasoconstriction)

Describe the structure and function of the male and female human reproductive systems, and explain the processes of fertilisation, gestation, and birth including the role of the placenta

Explain how pathogens (bacteria, viruses, and fungi) cause disease and describe how the immune system responds, including the roles of white blood cells (phagocytosis, antibody production) and the concept of immunity

Explain the effects of recreational drugs including alcohol, tobacco, and illegal substances on behaviour, health, and body systems, and distinguish between depressants, stimulants, and hallucinogens

Know that Earth has a North Pole and a South Pole — the two coldest places on the planet — and be able to find them on a globe, understanding that they are at the very top and very bottom of the Earth, as far from the Equator as possible

Know that the Arctic (North Pole) and Antarctic (South Pole) are very different — the Arctic is a frozen ocean surrounded by land where people and polar bears live, while the Antarctic is a huge ice-covered continent surrounded by ocean where penguins live but no people live permanently

Know about other polar animals besides penguins and polar bears — seals that swim under ice, walruses with long tusks, Arctic foxes that turn white in winter, snowy owls, narwhals with their unicorn-like tusk, and whales that migrate to polar waters to feed — and that all these animals have special features to survive extreme cold

Know key facts about penguins — they live in the Antarctic and Southern Hemisphere, they cannot fly but are excellent swimmers, Emperor penguins are the largest and huddle together in winter to keep warm, and penguin parents take turns keeping their egg warm on their feet in freezing temperatures

Know key facts about polar bears — they live only in the Arctic (not the Antarctic), they have thick white fur and a layer of fat (blubber) to keep warm, they are excellent swimmers, and they hunt seals by waiting at holes in the sea ice

Know that water can be solid (ice and snow) or liquid, that snow is made of tiny frozen ice crystals, that icebergs are huge chunks of ice floating in the ocean with most of their bulk hidden underwater, and that ice floats because it is lighter than liquid water

Know simple stories of brave polar explorers — Robert Falcon Scott and Roald Amundsen who raced to the South Pole, and Ernest Shackleton whose ship Endurance was crushed by ice but who brought all his men home safely — and understand that polar exploration required incredible courage and endurance

Know that at the poles, daylight and darkness are extreme — in summer the Sun never fully sets (midnight sun) and in winter the Sun never rises (polar night lasting months) — and that this is very different from what we experience at home, where every day has both daylight and darkness

Compare the Arctic and Antarctic in detail — the Arctic is an ocean covered by floating sea ice with surrounding land masses (Canada, Russia, Greenland, Scandinavia), while Antarctica is a continent larger than Europe buried under ice up to 4 km thick; polar bears, Arctic foxes, and walruses live only in the Arctic while penguins, leopard seals, and albatrosses are found only in the Antarctic

Understand polar food chains — in the Antarctic, phytoplankton are eaten by krill, krill are eaten by fish and penguins, and penguins are eaten by leopard seals and orcas; in the Arctic, algae under ice feeds zooplankton, which feeds fish, which feeds seals, which feeds polar bears — and that tiny organisms like krill and plankton are the foundation of all polar life

Know the story of the race to the South Pole in detail — Norwegian Roald Amundsen and British Robert Falcon Scott both set out in 1911, Amundsen arrived first on 14 December using dog sleds and careful planning, Scott arrived 34 days later using man-hauled sledges and tragically died with his team on the return journey; also know about Ernest Shackleton's 1914 Endurance expedition where the ship was trapped and crushed by ice, and Shackleton's extraordinary boat journey to South Georgia to rescue his crew

Understand ice in different forms and states of matter — sea ice forms when ocean water freezes (it's salty and relatively thin), glacial ice forms from compacted snow over centuries (fresh water, very thick), and icebergs break off from glaciers and float in the sea; know that water exists as solid (ice), liquid (water), and gas (water vapour), and that salt lowers the freezing point of water

Know what the Arctic tundra is — a vast, treeless landscape with permafrost (permanently frozen ground) just below the surface, a very short growing season in summer when mosses, lichens, and tough grasses burst into life, and home to caribou/reindeer, musk oxen, lemmings, and snowy owls

Know that indigenous peoples have lived in the Arctic for thousands of years — the Inuit across Canada, Alaska, and Greenland, and the Sami in northern Scandinavia — developing remarkable knowledge of the environment, using dog sleds and kayaks for transport, wearing animal-skin clothing for warmth, and building igloos as temporary shelters, with a deep respect for the animals and land they depend on

Understand how polar animals are adapted to survive extreme cold — blubber (thick fat layer) insulates seals and whales, hollow fur traps air for warmth in polar bears, counter-current heat exchange in penguin flippers prevents heat loss, Arctic foxes grow thick white winter coats for camouflage and warmth, and some animals migrate to avoid the harshest months

Understand why the poles have extreme seasons — Earth's axis is tilted at about 23.5°, so as it orbits the Sun, each pole spends half the year tilted toward the Sun (continuous daylight, warmer summer) and half tilted away (continuous darkness, bitter winter); this tilt also drives the annual cycle of sea ice expanding in winter and retreating in summer, and triggers animal behaviours like migration and breeding

Understand the conservation challenges facing polar regions — marine protected areas in the Southern Ocean aim to preserve Antarctic ecosystems, Arctic nations dispute sovereignty over northern sea routes and resources as ice retreats, indigenous peoples fight for land rights and voice in environmental decisions, and international cooperation (Paris Agreement, Antarctic Treaty) is essential but difficult to maintain as economic pressures grow

Understand how climate change is affecting polar regions — Arctic sea ice is shrinking dramatically (losing about 13% per decade since 1979), the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets are losing mass and contributing to sea level rise, permafrost is thawing and releasing methane (a powerful greenhouse gas), and these changes create positive feedback loops where melting leads to more warming which leads to more melting

Understand the cryosphere and its role in Earth's water system — the cryosphere is all frozen water on Earth (ice sheets, glaciers, sea ice, permafrost, snow cover); polar ice sheets hold about 69% of Earth's fresh water; if all polar ice melted, sea levels would rise over 65 metres; and the water cycle connects polar ice to the global system through evaporation, precipitation, and meltwater flowing into oceans

Understand how polar oceans connect to the global climate system — cold, dense polar water sinks and drives thermohaline circulation (a global conveyor belt of ocean currents), sea ice reflects sunlight back to space (the albedo effect) helping regulate Earth's temperature, and the Southern Ocean around Antarctica is one of the most productive marine ecosystems on Earth due to upwelling nutrients

Understand that polar regions belong to the polar climate zone — one of Earth's five main climate zones (tropical, arid, temperate, continental, polar) — characterised by temperatures rarely above 10°C even in summer, low precipitation (polar deserts receive less rain than the Sahara), and strong winds; know that latitude is the key factor determining climate zones, with polar regions above 60°N/S

Know that Antarctica is governed by the Antarctic Treaty (signed 1959, in force since 1961) — which sets Antarctica aside for peaceful purposes and scientific research, bans military activity and mining, and is signed by over 50 countries; understand that international research stations study climate, astronomy, biology, and geology, and that Antarctica is the closest thing on Earth to a continent for science rather than politics

Compare Arctic and Antarctic ecosystems — the Arctic has both terrestrial (tundra) and marine ecosystems supporting large land mammals and indigenous human communities, while the Antarctic is almost entirely marine-based with virtually no land plants or mammals; both regions have short, intense food chains anchored by phytoplankton and krill, and both are disproportionately affected by climate change and human activity

Compare historical polar exploration with modern polar science — the Heroic Age (1897–1922) relied on ships, dogs, and human endurance with many fatalities, while today's polar scientists use GPS, satellites, icebreaker ships, heated research stations, and aircraft; understand that modern challenges include studying climate change data, and that polar science now includes diverse international teams including women scientists like glaciologist Liz Thomas and marine biologist Sylvia Earle

Understand how glaciers and ice sheets form and behave — snow accumulates over centuries and compresses into dense ice, glaciers flow slowly downhill under their own weight carving U-shaped valleys and depositing moraines; the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets together hold enough ice to raise sea levels by over 65 metres; and ice cores drilled from these sheets contain trapped air bubbles that reveal Earth's climate history going back 800,000 years

Know that a rainforest is a thick, tall forest found in hot, wet places near the Equator where it rains almost every day, creating a warm, damp environment where plants and animals thrive

Know that a rainforest has four layers from ground to sky — the forest floor (dark, damp, full of decomposing leaves), the understory (small trees and shrubs in the shade), the canopy (a thick roof of treetops where most animals live), and the emergent layer (the tallest trees poking above the canopy into bright sunlight)

Name and recognise iconic rainforest animals — jaguars, toucans, sloths, poison dart frogs, howler monkeys, macaws, and butterflies — and know which layer of the rainforest each lives in

Know that rainforests contain an enormous variety of plants — towering kapok and Brazil nut trees, climbing vines called lianas, colourful orchids that grow on tree branches, giant water lilies, and huge leaves that funnel rainwater

Know that rainforests are found in a belt around the middle of the Earth — in South America (the Amazon), Central Africa (the Congo), and Southeast Asia — and that they appear on every continent except Antarctica and Europe

Know that indigenous peoples such as the Yanomami have lived in rainforests for thousands of years, building homes from forest materials, finding food by hunting, fishing, and gathering, and knowing the forest and its plants and animals deeply

Know that rainforests are home to millions of insects — leaf-cutter ants that farm fungus, giant beetles, jewel-coloured butterflies, enormous spiders, and stick insects — and that insects are the most numerous animals in the rainforest

Know that many everyday foods come from rainforests — chocolate is made from cacao beans, bananas grow in tropical forests, coffee berries ripen in forest shade, and Brazil nuts fall from giant trees — connecting our daily lives to faraway forests

Describe what it feels like inside a rainforest — hot and sticky (humid), dark on the ground because the treetops block the light, loud with animal calls and insect buzzing, and dripping with water from rain and condensation

Understand how energy and nutrients flow through a rainforest food web — from plants (producers) to herbivores (primary consumers) to predators (secondary consumers) — and that decomposers like fungi and insects break down dead material on the forest floor, recycling nutrients back into the soil for plants to use again

Classify rainforest organisms into major groups — mammals (jaguars, monkeys, bats), birds (toucans, macaws, hummingbirds), reptiles (snakes, lizards, caimans), amphibians (tree frogs, poison dart frogs), insects (butterflies, ants, beetles), and plants (trees, epiphytes, ferns) — using observable features to sort them

Understand how the water cycle works in a rainforest — trees absorb water through their roots and release it through their leaves (transpiration), this moisture forms clouds above the canopy, and the clouds produce rain that falls back into the forest — creating a self-sustaining cycle that generates much of the rainforest's own rainfall

Understand that rainforests have a tropical climate — consistently hot (25–30°C) with over 2000 mm of rainfall per year — and that this combination of heat and moisture creates ideal conditions for rapid plant growth and extraordinary biodiversity

Know that the Amazon is Earth's greatest rainforest — spanning nine countries across South America, containing the world's largest river by water volume, and home to an estimated 10% of all species on Earth including 40,000 plant species, 1,300 bird species, and 3,000 types of fish

Understand that indigenous peoples of the rainforest have developed deep ecological knowledge over thousands of years — using plants for medicine, food, and building materials, practising sustainable farming methods like shifting cultivation, and understanding animal behaviour and forest ecology in ways that modern science is only beginning to appreciate

Know how rainforest plants are adapted to their environment — drip-tip leaves channel water off quickly to prevent rot, buttress roots spread wide to support tall trees in thin soil, epiphytes (like orchids and bromeliads) grow on tree branches to reach sunlight without needing soil, and lianas climb trunks to reach the canopy

Know how rainforest animals are adapted to their environment — camouflage helps leaf insects and tree frogs hide, bright warning colours (aposematism) signal that poison dart frogs are toxic, prehensile tails let monkeys grip branches, toucans' large beaks help reach distant fruit, and many animals are nocturnal to avoid daytime heat

Understand that the future of rainforests depends on balancing competing needs — economic development for local communities, indigenous peoples' rights to their ancestral lands, global biodiversity conservation, and climate stability — and that there are no simple answers, requiring cooperation between governments, businesses, scientists, indigenous leaders, and consumers worldwide

Understand the connection between rainforests and global climate — rainforests absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen through photosynthesis, store enormous amounts of carbon in their biomass, and generate rainfall through transpiration; when forests are burned or cleared, stored carbon is released as CO₂, accelerating climate change and disrupting regional rainfall patterns

Understand the causes and scale of rainforest deforestation — cattle ranching (largest driver in the Amazon), soy and palm oil plantations, logging for timber, and mining — and know that approximately 10 million hectares of forest are lost globally each year, with devastating consequences for biodiversity, climate, and indigenous communities

Know the main approaches to rainforest conservation — protected areas and national parks, reforestation and rewilding programmes, sustainable certification schemes (Rainforest Alliance, FSC), recognition of indigenous land rights as the most effective form of forest protection, and international agreements like REDD+ that pay countries to keep forests standing

Understand how rainforest products connect to everyday life through global supply chains — palm oil is in snacks, soap, and cosmetics; soy feeds livestock worldwide; cocoa becomes chocolate; rubber is in tyres and gloves; timber becomes furniture; and many medicines originate from rainforest plants — and that consumer choices can drive either destruction or sustainable practices

Know that not all rainforests are tropical — temperate rainforests exist in cooler, wet regions like the Pacific Northwest of North America, western Scotland and Wales, southern Chile, and New Zealand — with similar features (high rainfall, moss-draped trees, dense canopy) but different species, including ancient oaks, giant redwoods, and tree ferns

Understand that rainforests are biodiversity hotspots — covering just 6% of Earth's land surface but containing over 50% of all known plant and animal species — and that this extraordinary richness makes them irreplaceable for global biodiversity and a priority for conservation

Understand the paradox of nutrient cycling in rainforests — despite lush growth, rainforest soil is typically thin and nutrient-poor because most nutrients are locked in living organisms, not the soil; decomposition is rapid in the warm, wet conditions, and nutrients released from dead material are immediately absorbed by plant roots and fungi, creating a fast, closed-loop recycling system

Ask simple scientific questions and recognise that they can be answered in different ways including observation, testing, and research

Observe closely using simple equipment such as hand lenses, and use observations to describe, compare, and identify things

Perform simple tests and use observations and ideas to suggest answers to questions

Gather and record data using simple methods such as tables, tally charts, and drawings to help answer questions

Analyse data from tests of two objects designed to solve the same problem to compare the strengths and weaknesses of each design

Develop a simple sketch, drawing, or physical model to illustrate how the shape of an object helps it function as needed to solve a given problem

Notice the difference between what you observed and what you think it means — 'the ice melted' is an observation; 'the ice melted because of the heat' is an interpretation

Be willing to change your mind when evidence doesn't support your prediction — a result that surprises you is more valuable than one that confirms what you already thought

Identify differences, similarities, or changes related to scientific ideas and use straightforward scientific evidence to answer questions or support findings

Report on findings from enquiries using oral and written explanations, draw simple conclusions, make predictions, and suggest improvements

For any result, ask: is there another explanation? — the first explanation that fits isn't always the right one, and good scientists actively look for alternatives

Gather, record, classify, and present data in a variety of ways including tables, bar charts, labelled diagrams, and keys

Make systematic and careful observations, take accurate measurements using standard units and equipment including thermometers and data loggers

Set up simple practical enquiries, comparative tests, and fair tests, understanding the importance of changing only one variable at a time

Two things happening together doesn't mean one caused the other — recognise the difference between correlation and causation before drawing conclusions

Generate and compare multiple possible solutions to a problem based on how well each is likely to meet the criteria and constraints

Plan and carry out fair tests in which variables are controlled and failure points are considered to identify aspects of a model or prototype that can be improved

Define a simple design problem reflecting a need or want that includes specified criteria for success and constraints on materials, time, or cost

Identify scientific evidence that has been used to support or refute ideas or arguments, evaluating the strength of evidence

Report and present findings including conclusions, causal relationships, explanations, and a degree of trust in results using oral and written forms

Plan different types of scientific enquiries to answer questions, recognising and controlling variables where necessary

Use test results to make predictions and set up further comparative and fair tests to investigate new questions

Scientific knowledge is provisional — it is the best current explanation based on available evidence, and it can and should be revised when better evidence arrives

Record data and results of increasing complexity using scientific diagrams, classification keys, tables, scatter graphs, bar and line graphs

Take measurements with increasing accuracy and precision using a range of scientific equipment, taking repeat readings when appropriate

Form a testable scientific hypothesis linking an independent variable to a predicted outcome, plan a full investigation identifying independent, dependent, and control variables, sample size, and risk assessment

Distinguish between precision (consistency of repeated readings) and accuracy (closeness to true value), use significant figures and standard form correctly, and choose and use appropriate measuring instruments to minimise uncertainty

Identify patterns and trends in data, draw conclusions that directly address the hypothesis with quantitative reference to evidence, and evaluate the investigation by distinguishing between systematic and random errors and proposing targeted improvements

Construct data tables with correct headings and SI units, plot appropriate graph types (bar chart, line graph, scatter graph), draw a line of best fit, and calculate the gradient of a straight-line graph

Communicate scientific findings in a structured report using appropriate scientific vocabulary, SI units, and standard notation; describe how peer review and replication contribute to the reliability of scientific knowledge

Identify the Sun, Moon, and stars as objects in the sky and describe basic differences: the Sun gives light and heat during the day, stars are tiny points of light at night, and the Moon can appear in both the day and night sky

Know that there are other planets besides Earth and that our group of planets orbiting the Sun is called the solar system — and that space is the vast area beyond Earth's sky

Know that astronauts are people who travel to space in rockets, that humans have walked on the Moon (Apollo missions), and that astronauts today live and work on the International Space Station

Observe and describe the Moon's changing shape over about a month, recognising that it goes through a repeating cycle of phases from new moon (invisible) to full moon (complete circle) and back again

Recognise a few star patterns (constellations) in the night sky, starting with the Big Dipper (the Plough), and understand that the North Star (Polaris) can be found using the Big Dipper

Know that the Sun is a star — the closest star to Earth — and that it is at the centre of our solar system, with all eight planets orbiting around it

Understand that Earth moves in two ways: it rotates (spins) on its axis once every 24 hours causing day and night, and it orbits (travels around) the Sun once every 365 days, which is one year

Name the eight planets in order from the Sun (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune), know that Pluto is a dwarf planet, and distinguish rocky inner planets from gas giant outer planets

Describe how robots and rovers have explored places humans cannot easily go — Mars rovers like Curiosity and Perseverance drive across Mars taking photos, collecting rock samples, and searching for signs of past water

Describe a key feature of each planet: Mercury is smallest and closest, Venus is the hottest, Mars is red with rust, Jupiter is the largest with a Great Red Spot, Saturn has rings, Uranus tilts on its side, Neptune is the farthest and very cold

Know that the Moon orbits Earth approximately once a month, that it does not make its own light but reflects sunlight, and that its changing appearance (phases) is caused by how much of the sunlit side we can see from Earth

Identify other objects in the solar system beyond planets: asteroids (rocky bodies mostly between Mars and Jupiter), comets (icy bodies with tails when near the Sun), and meteoroids/meteors/meteorites (space rocks that enter Earth’s atmosphere)

Know that telescopes are instruments that help us see distant objects in space, and that space telescopes like Hubble and James Webb orbit above Earth’s atmosphere to get clearer views of the universe

Explain why the Sun appears much brighter than other stars: it is the nearest star to Earth, not the biggest or brightest star in the universe — understanding the difference between apparent brightness (how bright something looks) and actual brightness

Understand gravity as a force that pulls objects towards the centre of the Earth, that 'down' means towards Earth’s centre regardless of where you stand on the sphere, and that gravity keeps the Moon orbiting Earth and planets orbiting the Sun

Describe key milestones in human space exploration: the Space Race (Sputnik, Yuri Gagarin, Apollo 11 Moon landing), the Space Shuttle era, the International Space Station, and current missions (Artemis programme, Mars exploration plans, commercial spaceflight)

Recognise named constellations visible in different seasons and understand why we see different constellations at different times of year — because Earth’s orbit around the Sun changes which part of the sky we face at night

Understand that ideas about the solar system changed over time: ancient people believed Earth was at the centre (geocentric model, Ptolemy), until Copernicus proposed the Sun was at the centre (heliocentric model), later confirmed by Galileo’s telescope observations

Describe the scale of the universe in nested layers: Earth is one planet in our solar system, the Sun is one star among billions in the Milky Way galaxy, and the Milky Way is one galaxy among billions in the universe

Understand the basics of a star’s life cycle: stars are born in clouds of gas and dust (nebulae), shine for millions or billions of years by fusing hydrogen, and eventually die — massive stars explode as supernovae while smaller stars fade into white dwarfs

Use scale models, diagrams, or calculations to represent the relative sizes and distances of objects in the solar system, understanding that the distances between planets are enormously larger than the planets themselves

Describe how astronomers detect planets around other stars using transit photometry (dip in starlight as a planet crosses) and radial velocity (Doppler wobble of the star), explain the habitable zone concept, and discuss what atmospheric biosignatures — such as oxygen, methane, and water vapour detected together — would suggest about a planet

Explain how the electromagnetic spectrum is the primary tool of modern astronomy — different wavelengths (radio, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, X-ray, gamma-ray) reveal different phenomena, why some telescopes must be in space, and what specific discoveries each wavelength range has enabled (e.g. CMB in microwave, black hole jets in X-ray, cold gas clouds in radio)

Apply Newton's laws to explain orbital motion: why orbit is continuously falling sideways rather than floating; how a gravity assist (slingshot manoeuvre) transfers momentum from a planet to a spacecraft; and why rockets need to reach a specific speed to enter orbit — with a conceptual (not algebraic) treatment of the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation

Explain stellar nucleosynthesis: the Big Bang produced mainly hydrogen and helium; main-sequence fusion builds elements up to iron; and supernovae produce elements heavier than iron and scatter them into space — meaning the atoms in our bodies were forged in ancient stars

Evaluate the engineering and human challenges of long-duration spaceflight to Mars — radiation exposure, muscle and bone loss, psychological isolation, communication delays — and assess the current state of the SETI programme: what methods are used, what has been detected so far, and what the Fermi Paradox is

Make observations at different times of year to relate the amount of daylight to the time of year, noticing longer days in summer and shorter days in winter

Name the planets in our solar system in order from the Sun and use vocabulary for space — planet, star, sun, moon, satellite, orbit, solar system, galaxy, universe, asteroid, comet — applying these correctly when describing the structure of the solar system and objects we see in the sky

Use observations of the sun, moon, and stars to describe predictable patterns such as the sun rising and setting, the moon changing shape, and stars appearing at night

Use information from several sources to provide evidence that Earth events can occur quickly (earthquakes, volcanic eruptions) or slowly (erosion, mountain building)

Use technical vocabulary for Earth's motion and the wider universe — rotation, revolution, axis, tilt, orbit, light year, gravitational force, atmosphere, lunar phases, waxing, waning, solstice, equinox, eclipse — and apply these when explaining day and night, the seasons, and the Moon's phases

Describe the sun, Earth, and moon as approximately spherical bodies, and describe the movement of the Earth and other planets orbiting the sun in the solar system

Identify evidence from patterns in rock formations and fossils in rock layers to support an explanation for changes in a landscape over time

Use the idea of the Earth's rotation to explain day and night and the apparent movement of the sun across the sky

Represent data in graphical displays to reveal patterns of daily changes in shadow length and direction, day and night cycles, and seasonal star patterns

Support an argument that the apparent brightness of the sun and stars is due to their relative distances from Earth, understanding the sun is a relatively close star

Explain that the seasons are caused by the tilt of Earth's axis during its orbit around the Sun, distinguishing this from the common misconception that seasons are caused by changing distance from the Sun

Explain the phases of the Moon as the changing angle of sunlight on the lunar surface as seen from Earth, and describe how solar and lunar eclipses occur

Describe the detailed structure of the solar system, including moons, asteroids, and comets, compare orbital periods and distances of the planets, and distinguish between planets, dwarf planets, and other bodies

Describe the scale of the universe, including the structure of galaxies, the position of the Sun in the Milky Way, and the use of light years as a unit of distance, and appreciate why space exploration requires enormous timescales

Describe gravity as a universal attractive force between all masses, explain that orbital motion arises because gravity provides the centripetal force keeping objects in orbit, and compare gravitational field strengths on different planets

Describe the life cycle of a star from nebula through main sequence to its end state (white dwarf, neutron star, or black hole depending on mass), and relate the life cycle to the origin of elements heavier than hydrogen

Know that we breathe air into our lungs through the nose and mouth, that our lungs take in oxygen from the air which our body needs to stay alive, and that we breathe out carbon dioxide as waste

Understand that the heart is a muscle that pumps blood around the body through tubes called blood vessels, and that we can feel our heartbeat by placing a hand on our chest or fingers on our wrist

Understand that the brain is the body’s control centre: it receives messages from the senses, thinks and makes decisions, and sends messages through nerves to tell muscles what to do

Know that the body needs food for energy, water to stay hydrated, sleep to rest and grow, and exercise to keep muscles and the heart strong — and that these are basic needs every human body has

Know that the body has a skeleton made of bones inside it that gives the body its shape and protects important organs like the brain (skull) and heart (ribcage), and that muscles attached to bones allow the body to move

Explore the five senses in detail: sight uses eyes to detect light, hearing uses ears to detect sound, touch uses skin to feel pressure and temperature, taste uses the tongue to detect flavours, and smell uses the nose to detect odours

Understand that the body is organised in a hierarchy: tiny cells are the building blocks, groups of similar cells form tissues, tissues combine into organs (like the heart or stomach), and organs work together in organ systems (like the circulatory system)

Know the main food groups (carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, fibre, water) and understand that a balanced diet includes the right amounts from each group to keep the body healthy and provide energy, growth materials, and protection from illness

Trace the journey of food through the digestive system: food enters the mouth where teeth break it down and saliva begins digestion, travels down the oesophagus to the stomach, passes through the small intestine where nutrients are absorbed, and waste moves through the large intestine

Describe how the eye works: light enters through the pupil, the lens focuses it onto the retina at the back of the eye, and the retina sends signals along the optic nerve to the brain, which interprets the image

Identify the four types of human teeth (incisors for cutting, canines for tearing, premolars and molars for grinding) and understand that tooth shape is linked to function, just as in other animals — herbivores have flat teeth, carnivores have sharp teeth

Understand that muscles work in pairs to move bones: when one muscle contracts (gets shorter and pulls), the opposite muscle relaxes, and that some muscles are voluntary (we choose to use them) while others like the heart are involuntary (they work automatically)

Identify major bones of the human skeleton by name (skull, spine/vertebrae, ribcage, pelvis, femur, humerus) and explain the skeleton’s three jobs: supporting the body’s shape, protecting organs, and enabling movement with muscles

Describe the stages of human development from birth to old age: baby, toddler, child, adolescent (puberty), young adult, middle-aged adult, elderly — understanding the physical changes that happen at each stage, especially during puberty

Understand how lifestyle choices affect the body’s health: a balanced diet, regular exercise, adequate sleep, and avoiding harmful substances (tobacco, alcohol, drugs) help body systems function well, while poor choices increase the risk of disease

Describe the circulatory system in detail: the heart has four chambers (two atria, two ventricles) that pump blood in a double loop — one to the lungs for oxygen and one to the rest of the body to deliver it — through arteries, veins, and tiny capillaries

Understand how the circulatory and respiratory systems work together: the lungs oxygenate the blood, the heart pumps it around the body, cells use the oxygen and produce carbon dioxide waste, and the blood carries the waste back to the lungs to be breathed out

Understand that the nervous system has two parts — the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and nerves that branch throughout the body — and that nerve signals travel at high speed to coordinate senses, thought, and movement

Explain how the respiratory system works in detail: air travels through the nose/mouth, down the trachea, into bronchi and bronchioles, reaching tiny air sacs (alveoli) in the lungs where oxygen passes into the blood and carbon dioxide passes out

Know that the body has an immune system that protects against illness: the skin acts as a barrier, white blood cells identify and destroy germs (bacteria and viruses), and vaccines train the immune system to recognise specific diseases before they cause illness

Explain how neurons transmit signals as electrochemical impulses across synapses, describe how the brain is organised (lobes and functions, limbic system for emotion), and explain neuroplasticity — why learning and practice physically change brain structure — connecting to optical illusions as evidence that the brain constructs reality rather than passively recording it

Distinguish innate (non-specific, immediate) from adaptive (specific, memory-forming) immunity; explain how B cells produce antibodies that recognise specific antigens, how T cells destroy infected cells, and why immunological memory makes vaccines work; and describe the gut microbiome as a community of trillions of microbes that significantly influences immune function

Explain homeostasis as the process of maintaining a stable internal environment; describe the main feedback loop systems (negative feedback) using blood glucose regulation (insulin/glucagon) and body temperature as concrete examples; and connect the endocrine system (hormone-secreting glands) to the nervous system as two complementary communication systems with different speeds and durations

Describe the double helix structure of DNA (base pairs, complementarity), explain how genes are sections of DNA that code for proteins, introduce the central dogma (DNA → mRNA → protein) conceptually, and discuss the ethical implications of CRISPR gene editing — including potential benefits (genetic disease treatment) and concerns (germline editing, 'designer babies')

Explain that cancer occurs when mutations in DNA disable normal cell-cycle controls, causing uncontrolled cell division and tumour formation; describe how stem cells differ from specialised cells and their potential for regenerative medicine; and evaluate the ethical debates around embryonic stem cell research and genetic testing

Know what a volcano is: an opening in Earth's surface where hot melted rock (lava) comes out

Know what an earthquake is: a sudden shaking of the ground that can be strong or weak

Understand that Earth is made of rock and other solid materials

Understand that Earth's surface changes: some changes are quick (eruptions, earthquakes) and some are slow (wind, water wearing away rock)

Appreciate that volcanic eruptions are powerful events that can change the landscape

Know basic earthquake safety: drop, cover, and hold on; move away from windows; tell a trusted adult

Recognise that volcanoes and earthquakes tend to happen in certain places — especially around the edges of the Pacific Ocean (Ring of Fire) — not randomly across the Earth

Know that Earth has layers — a thin outer crust, a thick hot mantle, and a core at the centre — and that the inside of the Earth is extremely hot

Understand that earthquakes happen when rocks underground suddenly move or break, releasing energy that shakes the ground

Know the three main types of rock — igneous (formed when lava or magma cools), sedimentary (formed from layers pressed together), and metamorphic — and that fossils are found in sedimentary rock

Understand the inside of a volcano: magma is hot melted rock underground, lava is the same material after it reaches the surface, and volcanoes have a magma chamber, vent, and crater

Classify volcanoes as active (could erupt any time), dormant (sleeping but could wake up), or extinct (will not erupt again)

Know the story of Pompeii: a Roman city buried by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD, preserved under volcanic ash, and rediscovered by archaeologists centuries later

Know what a tsunami is: a very large, fast ocean wave caused by an earthquake or volcanic eruption under the sea, which can cause great damage when it reaches land

Know that buildings can be designed to resist earthquakes, tsunami warning systems alert coastal communities, and communities prepare through evacuation plans and drills

Explain how plate boundaries cause earthquakes and volcanoes: plates pushing together, pulling apart, or sliding past each other create the forces that trigger these events, and mountains form where plates collide

Understand that Earth's crust is broken into large pieces called tectonic plates that float on hotter, softer rock beneath and move very slowly — a few centimetres per year

Know about famous eruptions and their global effects: Mount St Helens (1980), Eyjafjallajökull (2010), and how large eruptions can affect weather and climate worldwide; understand that continents were once joined (Pangaea) and have slowly drifted apart

Understand that not all volcanic eruptions are the same: some flow gently (effusive) and some explode violently (explosive), depending on the properties of the magma, and that volcano shape is related to eruption type

Generate and compare multiple solutions to reduce the impacts of natural Earth processes on humans, such as earthquakes, floods, or volcanic eruptions

Understand how volcanologists monitor volcanoes by looking for warning signs — gas emissions, ground swelling, small earthquakes — and that prediction involves evidence and uncertainty, not certainty

Know that scientists measure earthquakes using seismometers, that earthquakes release energy that travels as waves through the ground, and that a magnitude scale describes their strength

Understand the rock cycle: rocks slowly change from one type to another over millions of years — igneous rock weathers into sediment, sediment becomes sedimentary rock, heat and pressure create metamorphic rock, and melting starts the cycle again

Understand that convection currents in the molten mantle drive the movement of rigid tectonic plates; distinguish between convergent (collision/subduction), divergent (spreading ridges), and transform (sliding) plate boundaries; explain why volcanoes, earthquakes, and mountain chains cluster at boundaries; introduce the Wilson cycle of supercontinent assembly and breakup

Distinguish between P-waves (compression, travel through solids and liquids) and S-waves (shear, cannot pass through liquids); explain why a seismic shadow zone exists on the far side of an earthquake; describe how seismologists use wave refraction and reflection to infer that Earth has a solid inner core, liquid outer core, mantle, and crust

Describe calderas such as Yellowstone and Toba as supervolcanoes capable of erupting thousands of cubic kilometres of ash; explain how sulphur dioxide aerosols in the stratosphere scatter sunlight and cause volcanic winter; discuss the Toba catastrophe theory and how giant eruptions have interacted with ice ages; contrast supervolcano eruptions with ordinary eruptions in scale and climate impact

Explain probabilistic hazard assessment using eruption recurrence intervals and fault slip rates; describe how volcano observatories monitor ground deformation, gas emissions, and seismicity to issue alert levels; explore why communities remain near active hazards (fertile volcanic soil, poverty, cultural ties); discuss the ethics and politics of evacuation decisions and the social justice dimensions of disaster risk

Explain how large igneous provinces (LIPs) — massive outpourings of lava over millions of years — caused global warming and ocean acidification that drove mass extinctions; connect the Siberian Traps to the end-Permian extinction and the Deccan Traps to the end-Cretaceous event; explore how hydrothermal vents on the early Earth may have been the cradle of life; understand volcanoes as both destroyers and creators in the history of life

Observe that objects in darkness can be seen only when illuminated by a light source

Name and use vocabulary for how light and sound behave — light source, transparent, translucent, opaque, shadow, reflect, vibration, pitch, volume — and apply these terms correctly when describing observations about how light travels and how sounds are made and changed

Design and build a device that uses light or sound to solve the problem of communicating over a distance

Understand that vibrating materials can make sound, and that sound can make materials vibrate

Investigate the effect of placing objects made of different materials in the path of a beam of light, discovering transparent, translucent, and opaque materials

Recognise that shadows are formed when light from a source is blocked by an opaque object, and find patterns in how shadow size changes

Notice that light is reflected from surfaces, and that shiny smooth surfaces reflect light best

Recognise that light from the sun can be dangerous and that there are ways to protect eyes

Recognise that vibrations from sounds travel through a medium (solid, liquid, or gas) to the ear

Find patterns between the volume of a sound and the strength of the vibrations that produced it

Recognise that sounds get fainter as the distance from the sound source increases

Find patterns between the pitch of a sound and features of the object that produced it

Develop a model to describe that light reflecting from objects and entering the eye allows objects to be seen

Develop a model of waves to describe patterns in terms of amplitude and wavelength, and understand that waves can cause objects to move

Use technical vocabulary for wave behaviour — refraction, absorption, reflection, scattering, amplitude, frequency, wavelength, echo, spectrum, angle of incidence, angle of reflection — and apply these when explaining how light and sound travel and interact with different materials

Generate and compare multiple solutions that use patterns to transfer information, such as codes and signals

Recognise that light appears to travel in straight lines and use this to explain how we see objects and why shadows have the same shape as the objects that cast them

State the law of reflection (angle of incidence = angle of reflection) and explain refraction as the change in speed and direction when light crosses a boundary between two media; apply ray diagrams for plane mirrors and refracting surfaces

Explain that white light is a mixture of all visible colours (ROYGBIV), describe dispersion through a prism, explain why objects appear coloured (selective reflection and absorption of wavelengths), and describe colour mixing with filters

Describe waves in terms of amplitude, wavelength, frequency, and wave speed; distinguish transverse waves (oscillation perpendicular to direction of travel) from longitudinal waves (oscillation parallel); and use the wave equation v = fλ

Explain that sound is produced by vibrating objects and travels as a longitudinal pressure wave through solids, liquids, and gases; describe reflection of sound (echoes) and absorption; explain why sound cannot travel through a vacuum

Describe the full electromagnetic spectrum from radio waves to gamma rays, in order of increasing frequency and energy; explain that all EM waves travel at the same speed in a vacuum; and describe the uses and hazards of different regions

Explain how waves can be absorbed, transmitted, or reflected by different materials, and apply these interactions to explain colour perception, sight, communication technologies, and the effects of different surfaces on wave behaviour

Construct ray diagrams to show the formation of images by plane mirrors and converging lenses, identifying whether images are real or virtual, magnified or diminished, upright or inverted

Draw ray diagrams to show reflection at a plane mirror (angle of incidence = angle of reflection) and refraction at a boundary between media; use ray diagrams to locate images and explain how lenses and mirrors work

Identify and describe different types of weather — sunny, rainy, windy, snowy, cloudy, foggy, stormy — and describe what the weather is like today using simple vocabulary

Know that weather changes with the seasons — spring brings rain and new growth, summer is warmest with long days, autumn brings cooling and falling leaves, winter is coldest with short days — and that this pattern repeats every year

Know that rain falls from clouds in the sky, that puddles disappear because water goes back into the air, and that this is part of how water moves around — up into the sky and back down again

Understand temperature as how hot or cold something is, that a thermometer measures temperature, and use words like hot, warm, cool, and cold to describe how the air feels on different days

Know that wind is moving air, that it can be gentle (a breeze) or very strong (a gale), and that wind can move things like leaves, kites, flags, and even push people

Ask questions to obtain information about the purpose of weather forecasting and how people prepare for and respond to severe weather

Know basic storm safety: during thunder and lightning, go indoors or into a car, stay away from trees and water; understand that storms can be frightening but there are ways to stay safe

Choose appropriate clothing and equipment for different weather conditions — coat and umbrella for rain, sun hat and sunscreen for hot sun, warm layers for cold — understanding that weather affects what we do and how we prepare each day

Know that different places around the world have very different typical weather — tropical places are hot and wet all year, deserts are very dry, polar regions are freezing cold — and that geography (distance from the equator, altitude, nearness to the sea) affects local weather

Understand the water cycle: the Sun heats water in oceans and lakes causing it to evaporate into water vapour, the vapour rises and cools to form clouds (condensation), and water falls back to Earth as rain, snow, or hail (precipitation) — then the cycle repeats

Distinguish between weather and climate: weather is what the atmosphere is doing right now or today (it can change hour to hour), while climate is the typical pattern of weather in a place over many years

Identify the three main cloud types — cumulus (fluffy, fair weather), stratus (flat layers, overcast or drizzle), and cirrus (thin wisps, high up) — and understand that clouds form when water vapour in the air cools and condenses into tiny droplets

Understand what causes wind: the Sun heats the Earth's surface unevenly, warm air rises because it is lighter, and cooler air rushes in to take its place — this movement of air is wind

Know that meteorologists are scientists who study and forecast the weather using satellites, radar, weather balloons, and computer models, and that weather forecasts help people plan their activities and prepare for dangerous weather

Use weather instruments to measure and record weather data: thermometers for temperature in °C, rain gauges for rainfall, wind vanes for direction, and anemometers for wind speed — and keep a weather diary over time

Know that thunder and lightning happen during thunderstorms: lightning is a giant spark of electricity that forms in clouds, thunder is the sound the lightning makes, and we see lightning before hearing thunder because light travels faster than sound

Make a claim about the merit of a design solution that reduces the impacts of a weather-related hazard such as flooding, wind damage, or extreme temperatures

Understand the basics of climate change: Earth’s atmosphere traps some of the Sun's heat (the greenhouse effect), burning fossil fuels adds extra greenhouse gases (especially CO₂), this is making Earth gradually warmer, and this warming changes weather patterns, melts ice, and raises sea levels

Obtain and combine information to describe that energy and fuels are derived from natural resources and that their uses affect the environment

Understand how the Sun drives weather: the Sun heats Earth's surface unevenly (land heats faster than water, equator gets more heat than poles), creating differences in air pressure that cause wind patterns, ocean currents, and large-scale weather systems

Understand that Earth has distinct climate zones — tropical (hot and wet near the equator), temperate (moderate, with four seasons), polar (freezing cold), arid/desert (very dry), and mountain (cold at high altitude) — and that each zone supports different ecosystems and ways of life

Understand that engineers design buildings, flood defences, and warning systems to protect communities from extreme weather — hurricane-resistant roofs, flood barriers, tornado shelters, and early-warning alert systems — and evaluate the merits of these solutions

Read and interpret weather maps, data tables, and graphs — identifying symbols for sun, rain, wind, and temperature; spotting trends and patterns in weather data over weeks, months, or seasons; and using data to make simple predictions

Know that Earth is surrounded by a layer of air called the atmosphere, that air has weight and exerts pressure, that the atmosphere protects us from harmful radiation and keeps the planet warm enough for life, and that weather happens in the lowest layer (troposphere)

Know about extreme weather events — hurricanes (spinning storms over warm ocean), tornadoes (violent rotating columns of air), floods, droughts, and blizzards — how they form, where they typically occur, and their effects on people and the environment

Explain that unequal solar heating drives large-scale atmospheric circulation: Hadley cells (0-30°), Ferrel cells (30-60°), and polar cells (60-90°) produce the trade winds, westerlies, and polar easterlies; describe how the Coriolis effect from Earth's rotation deflects winds rightward in the Northern Hemisphere; explain the jet stream as a fast high-altitude wind that steers weather systems; connect jet stream waviness and Arctic amplification to prolonged extreme weather

Describe the electromagnetic spectrum and distinguish between short-wave solar radiation and long-wave infrared radiation emitted by Earth; explain how greenhouse gas molecules (CO2, CH4, N2O, H2O) absorb and re-emit infrared through molecular vibration while O2 and N2 do not; distinguish the natural greenhouse effect (which makes Earth habitable) from the enhanced greenhouse effect driven by human emissions; evaluate the relative potency of different greenhouse gases

Explain how hurricanes form and intensify over warm ocean water (latent heat release, low-pressure spiral); describe tornado formation within supercell thunderstorms; explain monsoon mechanics driven by temperature differences between land and sea; introduce attribution science — how scientists use climate models to calculate whether and by how much climate change increased the probability or intensity of a specific extreme weather event

Explain how ice cores preserve ancient air bubbles, isotope ratios, and volcanic markers allowing reconstruction of temperature and CO2 going back 800,000 years; describe tree rings, ocean sediment cores, coral skeletons, and pollen records as additional climate proxies; explain how climate models are built and validated against the palaeoclimate record; describe the IPCC process of synthesising scientific evidence across thousands of studies to produce consensus assessments

Evaluate the energy transition required to reach net zero: renewable energy scaling, electrification of transport and heat, green hydrogen; describe carbon capture and storage (CCS) and direct air capture (DAC); introduce proposed solar radiation management techniques (stratospheric aerosol injection, marine cloud brightening) and their potential risks and governance challenges; critically evaluate the role of individual behaviour change versus systemic policy in reducing emissions