Fair testing (age 9+)

Mastery Evidence

Use results from an investigation to make a specific, testable prediction
Design a follow-up test to verify the prediction
Explain the reasoning linking the original results to the new prediction

Assessment Prompt

“After getting results from one experiment, can [child] use the pattern to predict what would happen in a new situation and then design a follow-up test to check?”

Curriculum Standards1 alignment

KS2U.Sci.WS.4The national curriculum in England

Using test results to make predictions

using test results to make predictions to set up further comparative and fair tests

Science · Upper Key Stage 2

Prerequisites3

Drawing conclusions from evidence
hardAges 7—9
Controlling variables
hardAges 9—11
Describing Rules & Patterns
softAges 8—9

Show full prerequisite tree

Drawing conclusions from evidence hard
Must draw conclusions and make predictions before using results to set up further tests
- Teaching It Back soft
  Reporting scientific findings in your own words draws directly on the universal self-explanation habit
  - Explaining Mathematical Reasoning soft
    The universal self-explanation habit (LtL 7-8) builds on the maths-specific practice of explaining reasoning when prompted (MT 6-7)
    - Showing Your Working hard
      Age 6-7 explaining with diagrams/logic builds on age 5-6 showing and telling with objects
      - Numbers up to 10 into pairs soft
        Explaining part-part-whole decompositions exercises showing and telling
        
        Addition as combining or putting together two hard
        Decomposing numbers into pairs requires understanding addition as combining
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
      - Number bonds to 9 soft
        Explaining how to find number bonds to 10 exercises showing thinking with objects
        
        Numbers up to 10 into pairs hard
        Making 10 is a specific application of decomposing numbers into pairs
        
        Addition as combining or putting together two hard
        Decomposing numbers into pairs requires understanding addition as combining
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
      - Listening and responding soft
        Explaining mathematical reasoning orally requires basic listening and responding skills
    - What the equals sign means soft
      Determining whether equations are true/false exercises evaluating and justifying
      - Reading +, −, and = symbols hard
        Deep understanding of = requires already being able to read and write number sentences
        
        Reading and writing numbers to 20 hard
        Writing number sentences requires reading and writing numerals
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Reading/writing numerals 0–20 requires understanding that numerals represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
        
        Writing digits 0-9 hard
        Writing numerals requires the motor skill of forming digits 0-9 (taught in English handwriting)
        
        Sitting and holding a pencil soft
        Same motor skills for digit formation
        
        Addition as combining or putting together two hard
        Reading/writing the + symbol requires understanding what addition means
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
        
        Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
        Reading/writing the − symbol requires understanding what subtraction means
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding subtraction as taking away requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
    - Addition in any order soft
      Justifying why a+b=b+a exercises logical mathematical argument
      - Addition as combining or putting together two hard
        Understanding commutativity of addition requires understanding addition
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
  - Thinking Before Starting hard
    Explaining in your own words requires connecting new learning to existing knowledge already held in mind
    - Persisting When It's Hard hard
      Activating prior knowledge requires the foundational habit of persistent engagement with new material
- Classifying living things hard
  Must present data before reporting conclusions and making predictions
  - Pictograms and tally charts soft
    Science data presentation (tables, bar charts) builds on maths pictogram/table skills
    - Pictograms and tally charts (age 6+) hard
      Constructing pictograms, tally charts, and bar charts requires these display vocabulary terms
    - Sorting into categories hard
      Constructing pictograms and tally charts requires classifying and counting objects first
      - Comparing groups: more or fewer soft
        Sorting categories by count benefits from ability to compare quantities
        
        Counting objects to 20 soft
        Counting a set helps when comparing groups, but younger children (GB age 4) can compare using matching without formal counting to 20
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Answering 'how many?' requires the cardinality principle
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Counting objects to answer 'how many?' requires one-to-one correspondence
      - Counting objects to 20 hard
        Counting objects in each category requires being able to count sets of objects
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Answering 'how many?' requires the cardinality principle
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Counting objects to answer 'how many?' requires one-to-one correspondence
    - Sorting Data into Categories soft
      Data representation formats (pictograms, tally charts) support organising data
      - How Many in Total? soft
        Counting data in categories requires understanding cardinality
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
      - Pictograms and tally charts (age 6+) hard
        Organising and representing data requires data, tally, frequency, and category vocabulary
      - Sorting into categories hard
        Organising data in categories builds on classifying and counting objects in categories
        
        Comparing groups: more or fewer soft
        Sorting categories by count benefits from ability to compare quantities
        
        Counting objects to 20 soft
        Counting a set helps when comparing groups, but younger children (GB age 4) can compare using matching without formal counting to 20
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Answering 'how many?' requires the cardinality principle
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Counting objects to answer 'how many?' requires one-to-one correspondence
        
        Counting objects to 20 hard
        Counting objects in each category requires being able to count sets of objects
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Answering 'how many?' requires the cardinality principle
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Counting objects to answer 'how many?' requires one-to-one correspondence
  - Measuring accurately hard
    Must take accurate measurements before presenting complex data
    - Measurable Attributes of Objects soft
      Systematic scientific measurement builds on understanding measurable attributes from maths
    - Observing with simple equipment hard
      Must observe closely before taking systematic measurements
      - Asking scientific questions hard
        Must ask questions before learning to observe closely
        
        Asking Questions soft
        Formulating scientific questions builds on the general skill of asking relevant questions to extend understanding, developed in English speaking and listening
        
        Question Words hard
        Generating effective questions requires knowledge of question words (who, what, where, when, why, how)
        
        Listening and responding soft
        Listening and responding supports learning question words
        
        Listening and responding hard
        Listening and responding needed before asking questions
        
        Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
        Related speaking skill supports this topic
        
        Feeling of not understanding soft
        Using talk to explore ideas and speculate requires noticing what you don't yet understand — the comprehension-monitoring habit in a spoken register
        
        Asking for Help hard
        Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
        
        Observation vs Interpretation soft
        Asking good scientific questions requires noticing the distinction between observation and interpretation — a question like 'why did this happen?' only makes sense once you've separated what you saw from what you inferred
        
        Feeling of not understanding soft
        Noticing the observation/interpretation distinction requires monitoring your own thinking — the universal comprehension-monitoring habit applied to scientific reasoning
        
        Asking for Help hard
        Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
        
        Feeling of not understanding soft
        Asking scientific questions is the science-domain expression of the universal comprehension-monitoring habit: noticing what you don't yet understand
        
        Asking for Help hard
        Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
        
        Persisting When It's Hard soft
        Scientific enquiry requires persistence through uncertainty — the universal persistence habit underpins willingness to keep investigating
  - Recording Data hard
    Must gather data simply before presenting in charts and diagrams
    - Simple tests and experiments hard
      Must perform tests before learning to gather and record data
      - Observing with simple equipment hard
        Must observe closely before performing simple tests
        
        Asking scientific questions hard
        Must ask questions before learning to observe closely
        
        Asking Questions soft
        Formulating scientific questions builds on the general skill of asking relevant questions to extend understanding, developed in English speaking and listening
        
        Question Words hard
        Generating effective questions requires knowledge of question words (who, what, where, when, why, how)
        
        Listening and responding soft
        Listening and responding supports learning question words
        
        Listening and responding hard
        Listening and responding needed before asking questions
        
        Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
        Related speaking skill supports this topic
        
        Feeling of not understanding soft
        Using talk to explore ideas and speculate requires noticing what you don't yet understand — the comprehension-monitoring habit in a spoken register
        
        Asking for Help hard
        Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
        
        Observation vs Interpretation soft
        Asking good scientific questions requires noticing the distinction between observation and interpretation — a question like 'why did this happen?' only makes sense once you've separated what you saw from what you inferred
        
        Feeling of not understanding soft
        Noticing the observation/interpretation distinction requires monitoring your own thinking — the universal comprehension-monitoring habit applied to scientific reasoning
        
        Asking for Help hard
        Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
        
        Feeling of not understanding soft
        Asking scientific questions is the science-domain expression of the universal comprehension-monitoring habit: noticing what you don't yet understand
        
        Asking for Help hard
        Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
        
        Persisting When It's Hard soft
        Scientific enquiry requires persistence through uncertainty — the universal persistence habit underpins willingness to keep investigating
- Building Writing Stamina soft
  Reporting science findings orally and in writing draws on the non-fiction writing skills (recounts, explanations) established in English
  - Joining Letters soft
    Joined handwriting supports sustained writing stamina
    - Forming Capital Letters soft
      Capital letter formation supports correct sizing in joined writing
      - Sitting and holding a pencil hard
        Master lowercase formation before capitals
    - Sitting and holding a pencil hard
      Joining letters builds on Y1 lowercase letter formation
  - Expressing Feelings with Words soft
    Writing about real events draws on the ability to put feelings into words — the SEL skill of expressing emotions verbally before encoding them in written form
    - Triggers and Causes of Feelings soft
      Expressing feelings in words benefits from understanding triggers
      - Feelings Change and Differ soft
        Identifying triggers benefits from knowing feelings change
        
        Naming Basic Emotions soft
        Understanding feelings change benefits from naming basic emotions
    - Simple Calming Strategies soft
      Expressing feelings in words benefits from calming down first
      - Naming Basic Emotions soft
        Calming strategies benefit from naming the emotion you're trying to manage
      - Words for Big Feelings hard
        Calming strategies (calm, breathe, settle) rely on knowing this vocabulary to name and apply the techniques
  - Writing to inform soft
    Informative writing skills support writing for different purposes
    - Writing Process Vocabulary hard
      Informative writing requires knowing 'genre', 'audience', 'purpose', and 'detail' as concepts
    - Saying Sentences Before Writing Them hard
      Oral rehearsal precedes informative writing
      - Describing Aloud soft
        Oral description supports oral rehearsal
        
        Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
        Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
        
        Group discussions soft
        Conversational skills support oral description
        
        Listening and responding hard
        Listening and responding foundational to conversation
        
        Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
        Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
        
        Feeling of not understanding soft
        Using talk to explore ideas and speculate requires noticing what you don't yet understand — the comprehension-monitoring habit in a spoken register
        
        Asking for Help hard
        Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
      - Building sentences hard
        Need to understand sentences for oral rehearsal
      - Writing Process Vocabulary hard
        Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
  - Simple Stories with Beginning and Ending hard
    Writing about real events builds on narrative writing skills
    - Rote counting to 100 soft
      Sequencing events in narrative writing draws on the ordinal/sequential thinking developed through counting
      - One-to-one counting hard
        One-to-one correspondence requires knowing the number name sequence
    - Writing Process Vocabulary hard
      Writing simple narratives requires 'narrative', 'sequence', 'beginning', 'middle', 'ending' as shared vocabulary
    - Saying Sentences Before Writing Them hard
      Oral rehearsal precedes written narrative
      - Describing Aloud soft
        Oral description supports oral rehearsal
        
        Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
        Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
        
        Group discussions soft
        Conversational skills support oral description
        
        Listening and responding hard
        Listening and responding foundational to conversation
        
        Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
        Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
        
        Feeling of not understanding soft
        Using talk to explore ideas and speculate requires noticing what you don't yet understand — the comprehension-monitoring habit in a spoken register
        
        Asking for Help hard
        Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
      - Building sentences hard
        Need to understand sentences for oral rehearsal
      - Writing Process Vocabulary hard
        Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
    - Characters, settings, and events soft
      Story elements from reading inform writing
      - Listening to Texts Read Aloud hard
        Need to engage with stories before identifying elements
    - Sitting and holding a pencil soft
      Handwriting needed for written narrative
  - Writing Process Vocabulary hard
    Writing for different purposes requires the vocabulary of purpose, genre, recount, and instruction
- Fair testing hard
  Must conduct fair tests before reporting on findings from enquiries
  - Simple tests and experiments hard
    Must do simple tests before setting up formal fair tests with controlled variables
    - Observing with simple equipment hard
      Must observe closely before performing simple tests
      - Asking scientific questions hard
        Must ask questions before learning to observe closely
        
        Asking Questions soft
        Formulating scientific questions builds on the general skill of asking relevant questions to extend understanding, developed in English speaking and listening
        
        Question Words hard
        Generating effective questions requires knowledge of question words (who, what, where, when, why, how)
        
        Listening and responding soft
        Listening and responding supports learning question words
        
        Listening and responding hard
        Listening and responding needed before asking questions
        
        Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
        Related speaking skill supports this topic
        
        Feeling of not understanding soft
        Using talk to explore ideas and speculate requires noticing what you don't yet understand — the comprehension-monitoring habit in a spoken register
        
        Asking for Help hard
        Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
        
        Observation vs Interpretation soft
        Asking good scientific questions requires noticing the distinction between observation and interpretation — a question like 'why did this happen?' only makes sense once you've separated what you saw from what you inferred
        
        Feeling of not understanding soft
        Noticing the observation/interpretation distinction requires monitoring your own thinking — the universal comprehension-monitoring habit applied to scientific reasoning
        
        Asking for Help hard
        Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
        
        Feeling of not understanding soft
        Asking scientific questions is the science-domain expression of the universal comprehension-monitoring habit: noticing what you don't yet understand
        
        Asking for Help hard
        Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
        
        Persisting When It's Hard soft
        Scientific enquiry requires persistence through uncertainty — the universal persistence habit underpins willingness to keep investigating
Controlling variables hard
Must plan enquiries independently before designing follow-up investigations from predictions
- Using evidence to answer questions soft
  Pattern identification supports planning targeted enquiries
  - Drawing conclusions from evidence hard
    Must draw conclusions before identifying patterns and using evidence to support findings
    - Teaching It Back soft
      Reporting scientific findings in your own words draws directly on the universal self-explanation habit
      - Explaining Mathematical Reasoning soft
        The universal self-explanation habit (LtL 7-8) builds on the maths-specific practice of explaining reasoning when prompted (MT 6-7)
        
        Showing Your Working hard
        Age 6-7 explaining with diagrams/logic builds on age 5-6 showing and telling with objects
        
        Numbers up to 10 into pairs soft
        Explaining part-part-whole decompositions exercises showing and telling
        
        Addition as combining or putting together two hard
        Decomposing numbers into pairs requires understanding addition as combining
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
        
        Number bonds to 9 soft
        Explaining how to find number bonds to 10 exercises showing thinking with objects
        
        Numbers up to 10 into pairs hard
        Making 10 is a specific application of decomposing numbers into pairs
        
        Addition as combining or putting together two hard
        Decomposing numbers into pairs requires understanding addition as combining
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
        
        Listening and responding soft
        Explaining mathematical reasoning orally requires basic listening and responding skills
        
        What the equals sign means soft
        Determining whether equations are true/false exercises evaluating and justifying
        
        Reading +, −, and = symbols hard
        Deep understanding of = requires already being able to read and write number sentences
        
        Reading and writing numbers to 20 hard
        Writing number sentences requires reading and writing numerals
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Reading/writing numerals 0–20 requires understanding that numerals represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
        
        Writing digits 0-9 hard
        Writing numerals requires the motor skill of forming digits 0-9 (taught in English handwriting)
        
        Sitting and holding a pencil soft
        Same motor skills for digit formation
        
        Addition as combining or putting together two hard
        Reading/writing the + symbol requires understanding what addition means
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
        
        Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
        Reading/writing the − symbol requires understanding what subtraction means
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding subtraction as taking away requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
        
        Addition in any order soft
        Justifying why a+b=b+a exercises logical mathematical argument
        
        Addition as combining or putting together two hard
        Understanding commutativity of addition requires understanding addition
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
      - Thinking Before Starting hard
        Explaining in your own words requires connecting new learning to existing knowledge already held in mind
        
        Persisting When It's Hard hard
        Activating prior knowledge requires the foundational habit of persistent engagement with new material
    - Classifying living things hard
      Must present data before reporting conclusions and making predictions
      - Pictograms and tally charts soft
        Science data presentation (tables, bar charts) builds on maths pictogram/table skills
        
        Pictograms and tally charts (age 6+) hard
        Constructing pictograms, tally charts, and bar charts requires these display vocabulary terms
        
        Sorting into categories hard
        Constructing pictograms and tally charts requires classifying and counting objects first
        
        Comparing groups: more or fewer soft
        Sorting categories by count benefits from ability to compare quantities
        
        Counting objects to 20 soft
        Counting a set helps when comparing groups, but younger children (GB age 4) can compare using matching without formal counting to 20
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Answering 'how many?' requires the cardinality principle
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Counting objects to answer 'how many?' requires one-to-one correspondence
        
        Counting objects to 20 hard
        Counting objects in each category requires being able to count sets of objects
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Answering 'how many?' requires the cardinality principle
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Counting objects to answer 'how many?' requires one-to-one correspondence
        
        Sorting Data into Categories soft
        Data representation formats (pictograms, tally charts) support organising data
        
        How Many in Total? soft
        Counting data in categories requires understanding cardinality
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
        
        Pictograms and tally charts (age 6+) hard
        Organising and representing data requires data, tally, frequency, and category vocabulary
        
        Sorting into categories hard
        Organising data in categories builds on classifying and counting objects in categories
        
        Comparing groups: more or fewer soft
        Sorting categories by count benefits from ability to compare quantities
        
        Counting objects to 20 soft
        Counting a set helps when comparing groups, but younger children (GB age 4) can compare using matching without formal counting to 20
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Answering 'how many?' requires the cardinality principle
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Counting objects to answer 'how many?' requires one-to-one correspondence
        
        Counting objects to 20 hard
        Counting objects in each category requires being able to count sets of objects
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Answering 'how many?' requires the cardinality principle
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Counting objects to answer 'how many?' requires one-to-one correspondence
      - Measuring accurately hard
        Must take accurate measurements before presenting complex data
        
        Measurable Attributes of Objects soft
        Systematic scientific measurement builds on understanding measurable attributes from maths
        
        Observing with simple equipment hard
        Must observe closely before taking systematic measurements
        
        Asking scientific questions hard
        Must ask questions before learning to observe closely
        
        Asking Questions soft
        Formulating scientific questions builds on the general skill of asking relevant questions to extend understanding, developed in English speaking and listening
        
        Question Words hard
        Generating effective questions requires knowledge of question words (who, what, where, when, why, how)
        
        Listening and responding soft
        Listening and responding supports learning question words
        
        Listening and responding hard
        Listening and responding needed before asking questions
        
        Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
        Related speaking skill supports this topic
        
        Feeling of not understanding soft
        Using talk to explore ideas and speculate requires noticing what you don't yet understand — the comprehension-monitoring habit in a spoken register
        
        Asking for Help hard
        Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
        
        Observation vs Interpretation soft
        Asking good scientific questions requires noticing the distinction between observation and interpretation — a question like 'why did this happen?' only makes sense once you've separated what you saw from what you inferred
        
        Feeling of not understanding soft
        Noticing the observation/interpretation distinction requires monitoring your own thinking — the universal comprehension-monitoring habit applied to scientific reasoning
        
        Asking for Help hard
        Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
        
        Feeling of not understanding soft
        Asking scientific questions is the science-domain expression of the universal comprehension-monitoring habit: noticing what you don't yet understand
        
        Asking for Help hard
        Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
        
        Persisting When It's Hard soft
        Scientific enquiry requires persistence through uncertainty — the universal persistence habit underpins willingness to keep investigating
      - Recording Data hard
        Must gather data simply before presenting in charts and diagrams
        
        Simple tests and experiments hard
        Must perform tests before learning to gather and record data
        
        Observing with simple equipment hard
        Must observe closely before performing simple tests
        
        Asking scientific questions hard
        Must ask questions before learning to observe closely
        
        Asking Questions soft
        Formulating scientific questions builds on the general skill of asking relevant questions to extend understanding, developed in English speaking and listening
        
        Question Words hard
        Generating effective questions requires knowledge of question words (who, what, where, when, why, how)
        
        Listening and responding soft
        Listening and responding supports learning question words
        
        Listening and responding hard
        Listening and responding needed before asking questions
        
        Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
        Related speaking skill supports this topic
        
        Feeling of not understanding soft
        Using talk to explore ideas and speculate requires noticing what you don't yet understand — the comprehension-monitoring habit in a spoken register
        
        Observation vs Interpretation soft
        Asking good scientific questions requires noticing the distinction between observation and interpretation — a question like 'why did this happen?' only makes sense once you've separated what you saw from what you inferred
        
        Feeling of not understanding soft
        Noticing the observation/interpretation distinction requires monitoring your own thinking — the universal comprehension-monitoring habit applied to scientific reasoning
        
        Asking for Help hard
        Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
        
        Feeling of not understanding soft
        Asking scientific questions is the science-domain expression of the universal comprehension-monitoring habit: noticing what you don't yet understand
        
        Asking for Help hard
        Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
        
        Persisting When It's Hard soft
        Scientific enquiry requires persistence through uncertainty — the universal persistence habit underpins willingness to keep investigating
    - Building Writing Stamina soft
      Reporting science findings orally and in writing draws on the non-fiction writing skills (recounts, explanations) established in English
      - Joining Letters soft
        Joined handwriting supports sustained writing stamina
        
        Forming Capital Letters soft
        Capital letter formation supports correct sizing in joined writing
        
        Sitting and holding a pencil hard
        Master lowercase formation before capitals
        
        Sitting and holding a pencil hard
        Joining letters builds on Y1 lowercase letter formation
      - Expressing Feelings with Words soft
        Writing about real events draws on the ability to put feelings into words — the SEL skill of expressing emotions verbally before encoding them in written form
        
        Triggers and Causes of Feelings soft
        Expressing feelings in words benefits from understanding triggers
        
        Feelings Change and Differ soft
        Identifying triggers benefits from knowing feelings change
        
        Naming Basic Emotions soft
        Understanding feelings change benefits from naming basic emotions
        
        Simple Calming Strategies soft
        Expressing feelings in words benefits from calming down first
        
        Naming Basic Emotions soft
        Calming strategies benefit from naming the emotion you're trying to manage
        
        Words for Big Feelings hard
        Calming strategies (calm, breathe, settle) rely on knowing this vocabulary to name and apply the techniques
      - Writing to inform soft
        Informative writing skills support writing for different purposes
        
        Writing Process Vocabulary hard
        Informative writing requires knowing 'genre', 'audience', 'purpose', and 'detail' as concepts
        
        Saying Sentences Before Writing Them hard
        Oral rehearsal precedes informative writing
        
        Describing Aloud soft
        Oral description supports oral rehearsal
        
        Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
        Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
        
        Group discussions soft
        Conversational skills support oral description
        
        Listening and responding hard
        Listening and responding foundational to conversation
        
        Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
        Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
        
        Feeling of not understanding soft
        Using talk to explore ideas and speculate requires noticing what you don't yet understand — the comprehension-monitoring habit in a spoken register
        
        Asking for Help hard
        Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
        
        Building sentences hard
        Need to understand sentences for oral rehearsal
        
        Writing Process Vocabulary hard
        Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
      - Simple Stories with Beginning and Ending hard
        Writing about real events builds on narrative writing skills
        
        Rote counting to 100 soft
        Sequencing events in narrative writing draws on the ordinal/sequential thinking developed through counting
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        One-to-one correspondence requires knowing the number name sequence
        
        Writing Process Vocabulary hard
        Writing simple narratives requires 'narrative', 'sequence', 'beginning', 'middle', 'ending' as shared vocabulary
        
        Saying Sentences Before Writing Them hard
        Oral rehearsal precedes written narrative
        
        Describing Aloud soft
        Oral description supports oral rehearsal
        
        Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
        Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
        
        Group discussions soft
        Conversational skills support oral description
        
        Listening and responding hard
        Listening and responding foundational to conversation
        
        Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
        Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
        
        Feeling of not understanding soft
        Using talk to explore ideas and speculate requires noticing what you don't yet understand — the comprehension-monitoring habit in a spoken register
        
        Asking for Help hard
        Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
        
        Building sentences hard
        Need to understand sentences for oral rehearsal
        
        Writing Process Vocabulary hard
        Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
        
        Characters, settings, and events soft
        Story elements from reading inform writing
        
        Listening to Texts Read Aloud hard
        Need to engage with stories before identifying elements
        
        Sitting and holding a pencil soft
        Handwriting needed for written narrative
      - Writing Process Vocabulary hard
        Writing for different purposes requires the vocabulary of purpose, genre, recount, and instruction
    - Fair testing hard
      Must conduct fair tests before reporting on findings from enquiries
      - Simple tests and experiments hard
        Must do simple tests before setting up formal fair tests with controlled variables
        
        Observing with simple equipment hard
        Must observe closely before performing simple tests
        
        Asking scientific questions hard
        Must ask questions before learning to observe closely
        
        Asking Questions soft
        Formulating scientific questions builds on the general skill of asking relevant questions to extend understanding, developed in English speaking and listening
        
        Question Words hard
        Generating effective questions requires knowledge of question words (who, what, where, when, why, how)
        
        Listening and responding soft
        Listening and responding supports learning question words
        
        Listening and responding hard
        Listening and responding needed before asking questions
        
        Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
        Related speaking skill supports this topic
        
        Feeling of not understanding soft
        Using talk to explore ideas and speculate requires noticing what you don't yet understand — the comprehension-monitoring habit in a spoken register
        
        Asking for Help hard
        Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
        
        Observation vs Interpretation soft
        Asking good scientific questions requires noticing the distinction between observation and interpretation — a question like 'why did this happen?' only makes sense once you've separated what you saw from what you inferred
        
        Feeling of not understanding soft
        Noticing the observation/interpretation distinction requires monitoring your own thinking — the universal comprehension-monitoring habit applied to scientific reasoning
        
        Asking for Help hard
        Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
        
        Feeling of not understanding soft
        Asking scientific questions is the science-domain expression of the universal comprehension-monitoring habit: noticing what you don't yet understand
        
        Asking for Help hard
        Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
        
        Persisting When It's Hard soft
        Scientific enquiry requires persistence through uncertainty — the universal persistence habit underpins willingness to keep investigating
  - Reading between the lines soft
    Using evidence to answer scientific questions mirrors the skill of asking and answering questions about key details in informational texts in English
    - Characters, settings, and events hard
      Need story elements to extract key details
      - Listening to Texts Read Aloud hard
        Need to engage with stories before identifying elements
  - Could there be another explanation? soft
    Identifying similarities and differences in evidence opens up space for alternative explanations — patterns that differ from expectations prompt the habit of seeking alternatives
    - Changing Your Mind with Evidence hard
      Actively seeking alternative explanations requires first having the habit of not defending your original interpretation against the evidence
      - Observation vs Interpretation hard
        Being willing to revise a hypothesis requires first distinguishing observation from interpretation — you can only update your interpretation if you recognise it as separate from the data
        
        Feeling of not understanding soft
        Noticing the observation/interpretation distinction requires monitoring your own thinking — the universal comprehension-monitoring habit applied to scientific reasoning
        
        Asking for Help hard
        Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
      - Learning from Mistakes soft
        Changing your mind when evidence contradicts your prediction is the science form of the universal error-analysis habit — treating surprises as information rather than failures
        
        Checking Your Own Work soft
        Investigating why something was wrong grows from the earlier habit of checking whether an answer seems right
        
        Trying a New Approach hard
        Error analysis requires the habit of trying different approaches — you need to have tried something before you can analyse what went wrong
        
        Feeling of not understanding hard
        Strategy switching is triggered by noticing the current approach isn't working — requires comprehension monitoring
        
        Asking for Help hard
        Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
        
        Planning a Task hard
        Switching strategy requires first having made a plan — you can only switch away from something you chose deliberately
        
        Checking Your Own Work hard
        Planning before a task grows from the habit of checking back after finishing — both are self-regulatory bookends
    - Understanding Why soft
      Asking 'is there another explanation?' is the scientific form of the universal elaborative-interrogation habit
      - Teaching It Back hard
        Asking 'why does this work?' requires first being able to explain what you know — interrogation builds on explanation
        
        Explaining Mathematical Reasoning soft
        The universal self-explanation habit (LtL 7-8) builds on the maths-specific practice of explaining reasoning when prompted (MT 6-7)
        
        Showing Your Working hard
        Age 6-7 explaining with diagrams/logic builds on age 5-6 showing and telling with objects
        
        Numbers up to 10 into pairs soft
        Explaining part-part-whole decompositions exercises showing and telling
        
        Addition as combining or putting together two hard
        Decomposing numbers into pairs requires understanding addition as combining
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
        
        Number bonds to 9 soft
        Explaining how to find number bonds to 10 exercises showing thinking with objects
        
        Numbers up to 10 into pairs hard
        Making 10 is a specific application of decomposing numbers into pairs
        
        Addition as combining or putting together two hard
        Decomposing numbers into pairs requires understanding addition as combining
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        Listening and responding soft
        Explaining mathematical reasoning orally requires basic listening and responding skills
        
        What the equals sign means soft
        Determining whether equations are true/false exercises evaluating and justifying
        
        Reading +, −, and = symbols hard
        Deep understanding of = requires already being able to read and write number sentences
        
        Reading and writing numbers to 20 hard
        Writing number sentences requires reading and writing numerals
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Reading/writing numerals 0–20 requires understanding that numerals represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
        
        Writing digits 0-9 hard
        Writing numerals requires the motor skill of forming digits 0-9 (taught in English handwriting)
        
        Sitting and holding a pencil soft
        Same motor skills for digit formation
        
        Addition as combining or putting together two hard
        Reading/writing the + symbol requires understanding what addition means
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
        
        Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
        Reading/writing the − symbol requires understanding what subtraction means
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding subtraction as taking away requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
        
        Addition in any order soft
        Justifying why a+b=b+a exercises logical mathematical argument
        
        Addition as combining or putting together two hard
        Understanding commutativity of addition requires understanding addition
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
        
        Thinking Before Starting hard
        Explaining in your own words requires connecting new learning to existing knowledge already held in mind
        
        Persisting When It's Hard hard
        Activating prior knowledge requires the foundational habit of persistent engagement with new material
  - Spotting Patterns soft
    Identifying similarities, differences, and changes in scientific data is the science form of the universal pattern-and-structure recognition habit
    - Connecting New & Old Ideas soft
      Spotting patterns across domains is an extension of the habit of connecting new ideas to existing ones
      - Thinking Before Starting hard
        Making connections between new and old ideas requires the habit of activating prior knowledge first
        
        Persisting When It's Hard hard
        Activating prior knowledge requires the foundational habit of persistent engagement with new material
- Fair testing (age 8+) hard
  Must plan enquiries with variable control before running fair tests on prototypes
  - Comparing Possible Solutions hard
    Must compare solutions before planning fair tests to improve prototypes
    - Simple Design Problems hard
      Must define a design problem before generating and comparing multiple solutions
      - Comparing Design Solutions hard
        Must analyse simple design comparisons before formally defining design problems with criteria/constraints
        
        Modelling with Sketches hard
        Must create models before comparing test results of two designs
        
        Asking scientific questions hard
        Must ask questions about problems before modelling design solutions
        
        Asking Questions soft
        Formulating scientific questions builds on the general skill of asking relevant questions to extend understanding, developed in English speaking and listening
        
        Question Words hard
        Generating effective questions requires knowledge of question words (who, what, where, when, why, how)
        
        Listening and responding soft
        Listening and responding supports learning question words
        
        Listening and responding hard
        Listening and responding needed before asking questions
        
        Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
        Related speaking skill supports this topic
        
        Feeling of not understanding soft
        Using talk to explore ideas and speculate requires noticing what you don't yet understand — the comprehension-monitoring habit in a spoken register
        
        Asking for Help hard
        Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
        
        Observation vs Interpretation soft
        Asking good scientific questions requires noticing the distinction between observation and interpretation — a question like 'why did this happen?' only makes sense once you've separated what you saw from what you inferred
        
        Feeling of not understanding soft
        Noticing the observation/interpretation distinction requires monitoring your own thinking — the universal comprehension-monitoring habit applied to scientific reasoning
        
        Asking for Help hard
        Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
        
        Feeling of not understanding soft
        Asking scientific questions is the science-domain expression of the universal comprehension-monitoring habit: noticing what you don't yet understand
        
        Asking for Help hard
        Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
        
        Persisting When It's Hard soft
        Scientific enquiry requires persistence through uncertainty — the universal persistence habit underpins willingness to keep investigating
        
        Recording Data hard
        Must gather/record data before analysing data from design tests
        
        Simple tests and experiments hard
        Must perform tests before learning to gather and record data
        
        Observing with simple equipment hard
        Must observe closely before performing simple tests
        
        Asking scientific questions hard
        Must ask questions before learning to observe closely
        
        Asking Questions soft
        Formulating scientific questions builds on the general skill of asking relevant questions to extend understanding, developed in English speaking and listening
        
        Question Words hard
        Generating effective questions requires knowledge of question words (who, what, where, when, why, how)
        
        Listening and responding hard
        Listening and responding needed before asking questions
        
        Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
        Related speaking skill supports this topic
        
        Observation vs Interpretation soft
        Asking good scientific questions requires noticing the distinction between observation and interpretation — a question like 'why did this happen?' only makes sense once you've separated what you saw from what you inferred
        
        Feeling of not understanding soft
        Noticing the observation/interpretation distinction requires monitoring your own thinking — the universal comprehension-monitoring habit applied to scientific reasoning
        
        Feeling of not understanding soft
        Asking scientific questions is the science-domain expression of the universal comprehension-monitoring habit: noticing what you don't yet understand
        
        Asking for Help hard
        Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
        
        Persisting When It's Hard soft
        Scientific enquiry requires persistence through uncertainty — the universal persistence habit underpins willingness to keep investigating
- Choosing a Strategy soft
  Choosing an enquiry approach and evaluating whether it worked is the science form of the universal strategy-evaluation habit
  - Trying a New Approach hard
    Evaluating a strategy requires having deliberately chosen and tried different strategies — you need the switching habit first
    - Feeling of not understanding hard
      Strategy switching is triggered by noticing the current approach isn't working — requires comprehension monitoring
      - Asking for Help hard
        Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
    - Planning a Task hard
      Switching strategy requires first having made a plan — you can only switch away from something you chose deliberately
      - Checking Your Own Work hard
        Planning before a task grows from the habit of checking back after finishing — both are self-regulatory bookends
  - Guided Multi-Step Problem Solving soft
    The LtL strategy evaluation skill (9-10) builds on the early scaffolded habit of checking reasonableness in maths introduced at 6-7
    - Feeling of not understanding soft
      Evaluating whether a maths solution is reasonable applies the universal comprehension-monitoring habit
      - Asking for Help hard
        Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
    - Addition and subtraction within 20 soft
      Choosing strategies for adding within 20 requires planning and evaluating approaches
      - Number bonds to 9 hard
        Making-ten strategy requires knowing bonds to 10
        
        Numbers up to 10 into pairs hard
        Making 10 is a specific application of decomposing numbers into pairs
        
        Addition as combining or putting together two hard
        Decomposing numbers into pairs requires understanding addition as combining
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
      - Fluent adding and subtracting within 10 hard
        Strategies for within-20 calculation build on fluent within-10 knowledge
        
        Number bonds to 9 hard
        Fluency within 10 requires knowing number bonds to 10
        
        Numbers up to 10 into pairs hard
        Making 10 is a specific application of decomposing numbers into pairs
        
        Addition as combining or putting together two hard
        Decomposing numbers into pairs requires understanding addition as combining
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
        
        Fluent adding and subtracting within 5 hard
        Fluency within 10 extends from fluency within 5
        
        Addition as combining or putting together two hard
        Fluency with addition within 5 requires understanding addition as combining
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
        
        Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
        Fluency with subtraction within 5 requires understanding subtraction as taking away
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding subtraction as taking away requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
    - Planning a Task soft
      Planning a mathematical approach is the domain-specific application of the universal task-planning habit
      - Checking Your Own Work hard
        Planning before a task grows from the habit of checking back after finishing — both are self-regulatory bookends
    - Early Word Problems soft
      Planning approaches to word problems within 20 exercises this skill
      - Adding and subtracting hard
        Word problems to 20 require the procedural ability to add/subtract to 20
        
        Number bonds hard
        Adding/subtracting to 20 procedurally requires knowing the number bonds
        
        Number bonds to 9 hard
        Number bonds within 20 builds on knowing bonds to 10
        
        Numbers up to 10 into pairs hard
        Making 10 is a specific application of decomposing numbers into pairs
        
        Addition as combining or putting together two hard
        Decomposing numbers into pairs requires understanding addition as combining
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
        
        Fluent adding and subtracting within 5 hard
        Recalling bonds within 20 builds on fluency within 5
        
        Addition as combining or putting together two hard
        Fluency with addition within 5 requires understanding addition as combining
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
        
        Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
        Fluency with subtraction within 5 requires understanding subtraction as taking away
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding subtraction as taking away requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
      - Addition and subtraction word problems soft
        Word problems to 20 extend from word problems within 10 — same problem structures at a higher range
        
        Representing Addition and Subtraction hard
        Solving word problems within 10 requires ability to represent the operations with objects/drawings
        
        Addition as combining or putting together two hard
        Representing addition with objects/drawings requires understanding what addition means
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
        
        Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
        Representing subtraction with objects/drawings requires understanding what subtraction means
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding subtraction as taking away requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
    - Making Sense of Problems hard
      Age 6-7 problem-solving builds directly on age 5-6 problem-sense-making
      - Checking Your Own Work soft
        Checking whether a maths answer makes sense applies the universal self-checking habit to a mathematical context
      - How Many in Total? soft
        Problem sense-making at 5-6 requires cardinality understanding to make sense of 'how many' problems
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
      - Listening to Texts Read Aloud soft
        Making sense of word problems requires listening comprehension skills
      - Addition as combining or putting together two soft
        Making sense of addition problems requires understanding addition as combining
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
      - Persisting When It's Hard soft
        Mathematical perseverance with problems is the domain-specific application of the universal persistence habit
  - Multi-Step Problem Solving soft
    The LtL strategy evaluation skill (9-10) builds on the maths-specific checking habit developed with teacher support at 7-8
    - Trying a New Approach soft
      Trying a different mathematical strategy when stuck is the maths-specific application of the universal strategy-switching habit
      - Feeling of not understanding hard
        Strategy switching is triggered by noticing the current approach isn't working — requires comprehension monitoring
        
        Asking for Help hard
        Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
      - Planning a Task hard
        Switching strategy requires first having made a plan — you can only switch away from something you chose deliberately
        
        Checking Your Own Work hard
        Planning before a task grows from the habit of checking back after finishing — both are self-regulatory bookends
    - Building sentences soft
      Cross-subject: making sense of multi-step word problems requires understanding that sentences express complete thoughts (reading comprehension foundation)
    - Guided Multi-Step Problem Solving hard
      Age 7-8 problem-solving builds on age 6-7 problem-solving
      - Feeling of not understanding soft
        Evaluating whether a maths solution is reasonable applies the universal comprehension-monitoring habit
        
        Asking for Help hard
        Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
      - Addition and subtraction within 20 soft
        Choosing strategies for adding within 20 requires planning and evaluating approaches
        
        Number bonds to 9 hard
        Making-ten strategy requires knowing bonds to 10
        
        Numbers up to 10 into pairs hard
        Making 10 is a specific application of decomposing numbers into pairs
        
        Addition as combining or putting together two hard
        Decomposing numbers into pairs requires understanding addition as combining
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
        
        Fluent adding and subtracting within 10 hard
        Strategies for within-20 calculation build on fluent within-10 knowledge
        
        Number bonds to 9 hard
        Fluency within 10 requires knowing number bonds to 10
        
        Numbers up to 10 into pairs hard
        Making 10 is a specific application of decomposing numbers into pairs
        
        Addition as combining or putting together two hard
        Decomposing numbers into pairs requires understanding addition as combining
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
        
        Fluent adding and subtracting within 5 hard
        Fluency within 10 extends from fluency within 5
        
        Addition as combining or putting together two hard
        Fluency with addition within 5 requires understanding addition as combining
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
        
        Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
        Fluency with subtraction within 5 requires understanding subtraction as taking away
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding subtraction as taking away requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
      - Planning a Task soft
        Planning a mathematical approach is the domain-specific application of the universal task-planning habit
        
        Checking Your Own Work hard
        Planning before a task grows from the habit of checking back after finishing — both are self-regulatory bookends
      - Early Word Problems soft
        Planning approaches to word problems within 20 exercises this skill
        
        Adding and subtracting hard
        Word problems to 20 require the procedural ability to add/subtract to 20
        
        Number bonds hard
        Adding/subtracting to 20 procedurally requires knowing the number bonds
        
        Number bonds to 9 hard
        Number bonds within 20 builds on knowing bonds to 10
        
        Numbers up to 10 into pairs hard
        Making 10 is a specific application of decomposing numbers into pairs
        
        Addition as combining or putting together two hard
        Decomposing numbers into pairs requires understanding addition as combining
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        Fluent adding and subtracting within 5 hard
        Recalling bonds within 20 builds on fluency within 5
        
        Addition as combining or putting together two hard
        Fluency with addition within 5 requires understanding addition as combining
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
        
        Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
        Fluency with subtraction within 5 requires understanding subtraction as taking away
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding subtraction as taking away requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
        
        Addition and subtraction word problems soft
        Word problems to 20 extend from word problems within 10 — same problem structures at a higher range
        
        Representing Addition and Subtraction hard
        Solving word problems within 10 requires ability to represent the operations with objects/drawings
        
        Addition as combining or putting together two hard
        Representing addition with objects/drawings requires understanding what addition means
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
        
        Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
        Representing subtraction with objects/drawings requires understanding what subtraction means
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding subtraction as taking away requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
      - Making Sense of Problems hard
        Age 6-7 problem-solving builds directly on age 5-6 problem-sense-making
        
        Checking Your Own Work soft
        Checking whether a maths answer makes sense applies the universal self-checking habit to a mathematical context
        
        How Many in Total? soft
        Problem sense-making at 5-6 requires cardinality understanding to make sense of 'how many' problems
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
        
        Listening to Texts Read Aloud soft
        Making sense of word problems requires listening comprehension skills
        
        Addition as combining or putting together two soft
        Making sense of addition problems requires understanding addition as combining
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
        
        Persisting When It's Hard soft
        Mathematical perseverance with problems is the domain-specific application of the universal persistence habit
    - Estimating by rounding soft
      Estimating and checking answers exercises problem-solving at this age
      - Inverse: addition undoes subtraction hard
        Using inverse to check answers requires understanding the inverse relationship
        
        Finding a missing number in addition hard
        Inverse relationship builds on understanding subtraction as unknown-addend
        
        Addition as combining or putting together two hard
        Unknown-addend requires understanding both addition and subtraction
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
        
        Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
        Subtraction as unknown-addend reframes subtraction conceptually
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding subtraction as taking away requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
      - Addition and subtraction within 1000 soft
        Estimating and checking applies to three-digit calculations
        
        The three digits of a three-digit number hard
        Three-digit operations require three-digit place-value understanding
        
        A Hundred Is Ten Tens hard
        Three-digit place value requires understanding 100 as a unit
        
        A Ten Is Ten Ones hard
        100 as ten tens extends understanding of 10 as ten ones
        
        The teen numbers hard
        Understanding 10 as a bundle builds on understanding teen numbers as 'a ten and some ones'
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding tens-and-ones composition requires cardinality — knowing numbers represent quantities
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
        
        Reading and writing numbers to 20 hard
        Composing/decomposing teen numbers requires reading and writing those numerals
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Reading/writing numerals 0–20 requires understanding that numerals represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        Writing digits 0-9 hard
        Writing numerals requires the motor skill of forming digits 0-9 (taught in English handwriting)
        
        The two digits of a two-digit number hard
        Must understand two-digit place value before extending to hundreds
        
        A Ten Is Ten Ones hard
        Understanding tens and ones place value requires the concept of 10 as a bundle
        
        The teen numbers hard
        Understanding 10 as a bundle builds on understanding teen numbers as 'a ten and some ones'
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding tens-and-ones composition requires cardinality — knowing numbers represent quantities
        
        Reading and writing numbers to 20 hard
        Composing/decomposing teen numbers requires reading and writing those numerals
        
        The teen numbers hard
        General two-digit place value extends from understanding teen number composition
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding tens-and-ones composition requires cardinality — knowing numbers represent quantities
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
        
        Reading and writing numbers to 20 hard
        Composing/decomposing teen numbers requires reading and writing those numerals
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Reading/writing numerals 0–20 requires understanding that numerals represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        Writing digits 0-9 hard
        Writing numerals requires the motor skill of forming digits 0-9 (taught in English handwriting)
        
        The two digits of a two-digit number hard
        Three-digit PV extends two-digit PV (tens and ones)
        
        A Ten Is Ten Ones hard
        Understanding tens and ones place value requires the concept of 10 as a bundle
        
        The teen numbers hard
        Understanding 10 as a bundle builds on understanding teen numbers as 'a ten and some ones'
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding tens-and-ones composition requires cardinality — knowing numbers represent quantities
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
        
        Reading and writing numbers to 20 hard
        Composing/decomposing teen numbers requires reading and writing those numerals
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Reading/writing numerals 0–20 requires understanding that numerals represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        Writing digits 0-9 hard
        Writing numerals requires the motor skill of forming digits 0-9 (taught in English handwriting)
        
        The teen numbers hard
        General two-digit place value extends from understanding teen number composition
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding tens-and-ones composition requires cardinality — knowing numbers represent quantities
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
        
        Reading and writing numbers to 20 hard
        Composing/decomposing teen numbers requires reading and writing those numerals
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Reading/writing numerals 0–20 requires understanding that numerals represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
        
        Writing digits 0-9 hard
        Writing numerals requires the motor skill of forming digits 0-9 (taught in English handwriting)
        
        Sitting and holding a pencil soft
        Same motor skills for digit formation
        
        Fluent adding and subtracting within 100 hard
        Adding/subtracting within 1000 extends within-100 skills
        
        Adding within 100 hard
        Fluency within 100 builds on strategy-based adding within 100
        
        Addition and subtraction within 20 hard
        Adding within 100 extends within-20 strategies to larger numbers
        
        Number bonds to 9 hard
        Making-ten strategy requires knowing bonds to 10
        
        Numbers up to 10 into pairs hard
        Making 10 is a specific application of decomposing numbers into pairs
        
        Addition as combining or putting together two hard
        Decomposing numbers into pairs requires understanding addition as combining
        
        Fluent adding and subtracting within 10 hard
        Strategies for within-20 calculation build on fluent within-10 knowledge
        
        Number bonds to 9 hard
        Fluency within 10 requires knowing number bonds to 10
        
        Numbers up to 10 into pairs hard
        Making 10 is a specific application of decomposing numbers into pairs
        
        Fluent adding and subtracting within 5 hard
        Fluency within 10 extends from fluency within 5
        
        Addition as combining or putting together two hard
        Fluency with addition within 5 requires understanding addition as combining
        
        Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
        Fluency with subtraction within 5 requires understanding subtraction as taking away
        
        The two digits of a two-digit number hard
        Adding within 100 using PV requires understanding tens and ones
        
        A Ten Is Ten Ones hard
        Understanding tens and ones place value requires the concept of 10 as a bundle
        
        The teen numbers hard
        Understanding 10 as a bundle builds on understanding teen numbers as 'a ten and some ones'
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding tens-and-ones composition requires cardinality — knowing numbers represent quantities
        
        Reading and writing numbers to 20 hard
        Composing/decomposing teen numbers requires reading and writing those numerals
        
        The teen numbers hard
        General two-digit place value extends from understanding teen number composition
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding tens-and-ones composition requires cardinality — knowing numbers represent quantities
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
        
        Reading and writing numbers to 20 hard
        Composing/decomposing teen numbers requires reading and writing those numerals
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Reading/writing numerals 0–20 requires understanding that numerals represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        Writing digits 0-9 hard
        Writing numerals requires the motor skill of forming digits 0-9 (taught in English handwriting)
        
        Fluent adding and subtracting within 20 hard
        Fluency within 100 requires fluent single-digit facts
        
        Addition and subtraction within 20 hard
        Fluency within 20 requires prior strategy-based adding/subtracting within 20
        
        Number bonds to 9 hard
        Making-ten strategy requires knowing bonds to 10
        
        Numbers up to 10 into pairs hard
        Making 10 is a specific application of decomposing numbers into pairs
        
        Addition as combining or putting together two hard
        Decomposing numbers into pairs requires understanding addition as combining
        
        Fluent adding and subtracting within 10 hard
        Strategies for within-20 calculation build on fluent within-10 knowledge
        
        Number bonds to 9 hard
        Fluency within 10 requires knowing number bonds to 10
        
        Numbers up to 10 into pairs hard
        Making 10 is a specific application of decomposing numbers into pairs
        
        Fluent adding and subtracting within 5 hard
        Fluency within 10 extends from fluency within 5
        
        Addition as combining or putting together two hard
        Fluency with addition within 5 requires understanding addition as combining
        
        Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
        Fluency with subtraction within 5 requires understanding subtraction as taking away
        
        Fluent adding and subtracting within 10 hard
        Fluency within 20 builds on fluency within 10
        
        Number bonds to 9 hard
        Fluency within 10 requires knowing number bonds to 10
        
        Numbers up to 10 into pairs hard
        Making 10 is a specific application of decomposing numbers into pairs
        
        Addition as combining or putting together two hard
        Decomposing numbers into pairs requires understanding addition as combining
        
        Fluent adding and subtracting within 5 hard
        Fluency within 10 extends from fluency within 5
        
        Addition as combining or putting together two hard
        Fluency with addition within 5 requires understanding addition as combining
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
        Fluency with subtraction within 5 requires understanding subtraction as taking away
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding subtraction as taking away requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
    - Missing number problems (age 7+) soft
      Multi-step A+S problems exercise breaking problems into parts
      - Adding and subtracting (age 7+) soft
        Formal written methods support solving more complex problems
        
        Fluent adding and subtracting within 100 hard
        Columnar methods require fluent within-100 addition/subtraction
        
        Adding within 100 hard
        Fluency within 100 builds on strategy-based adding within 100
        
        Addition and subtraction within 20 hard
        Adding within 100 extends within-20 strategies to larger numbers
        
        Number bonds to 9 hard
        Making-ten strategy requires knowing bonds to 10
        
        Numbers up to 10 into pairs hard
        Making 10 is a specific application of decomposing numbers into pairs
        
        Addition as combining or putting together two hard
        Decomposing numbers into pairs requires understanding addition as combining
        
        Fluent adding and subtracting within 10 hard
        Strategies for within-20 calculation build on fluent within-10 knowledge
        
        Number bonds to 9 hard
        Fluency within 10 requires knowing number bonds to 10
        
        Numbers up to 10 into pairs hard
        Making 10 is a specific application of decomposing numbers into pairs
        
        Fluent adding and subtracting within 5 hard
        Fluency within 10 extends from fluency within 5
        
        Addition as combining or putting together two hard
        Fluency with addition within 5 requires understanding addition as combining
        
        Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
        Fluency with subtraction within 5 requires understanding subtraction as taking away
        
        The two digits of a two-digit number hard
        Adding within 100 using PV requires understanding tens and ones
        
        A Ten Is Ten Ones hard
        Understanding tens and ones place value requires the concept of 10 as a bundle
        
        The teen numbers hard
        Understanding 10 as a bundle builds on understanding teen numbers as 'a ten and some ones'
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding tens-and-ones composition requires cardinality — knowing numbers represent quantities
        
        Reading and writing numbers to 20 hard
        Composing/decomposing teen numbers requires reading and writing those numerals
        
        The teen numbers hard
        General two-digit place value extends from understanding teen number composition
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding tens-and-ones composition requires cardinality — knowing numbers represent quantities
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
        
        Reading and writing numbers to 20 hard
        Composing/decomposing teen numbers requires reading and writing those numerals
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Reading/writing numerals 0–20 requires understanding that numerals represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        Writing digits 0-9 hard
        Writing numerals requires the motor skill of forming digits 0-9 (taught in English handwriting)
        
        Fluent adding and subtracting within 20 hard
        Fluency within 100 requires fluent single-digit facts
        
        Addition and subtraction within 20 hard
        Fluency within 20 requires prior strategy-based adding/subtracting within 20
        
        Number bonds to 9 hard
        Making-ten strategy requires knowing bonds to 10
        
        Numbers up to 10 into pairs hard
        Making 10 is a specific application of decomposing numbers into pairs
        
        Addition as combining or putting together two hard
        Decomposing numbers into pairs requires understanding addition as combining
        
        Fluent adding and subtracting within 10 hard
        Strategies for within-20 calculation build on fluent within-10 knowledge
        
        Number bonds to 9 hard
        Fluency within 10 requires knowing number bonds to 10
        
        Numbers up to 10 into pairs hard
        Making 10 is a specific application of decomposing numbers into pairs
        
        Fluent adding and subtracting within 5 hard
        Fluency within 10 extends from fluency within 5
        
        Addition as combining or putting together two hard
        Fluency with addition within 5 requires understanding addition as combining
        
        Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
        Fluency with subtraction within 5 requires understanding subtraction as taking away
        
        Fluent adding and subtracting within 10 hard
        Fluency within 20 builds on fluency within 10
        
        Number bonds to 9 hard
        Fluency within 10 requires knowing number bonds to 10
        
        Numbers up to 10 into pairs hard
        Making 10 is a specific application of decomposing numbers into pairs
        
        Addition as combining or putting together two hard
        Decomposing numbers into pairs requires understanding addition as combining
        
        Fluent adding and subtracting within 5 hard
        Fluency within 10 extends from fluency within 5
        
        Addition as combining or putting together two hard
        Fluency with addition within 5 requires understanding addition as combining
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
        Fluency with subtraction within 5 requires understanding subtraction as taking away
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding subtraction as taking away requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        Addition and subtraction within 1000 hard
        Formal columnar methods build on conceptual understanding of composing/decomposing
        
        The three digits of a three-digit number hard
        Three-digit operations require three-digit place-value understanding
        
        A Hundred Is Ten Tens hard
        Three-digit place value requires understanding 100 as a unit
        
        A Ten Is Ten Ones hard
        100 as ten tens extends understanding of 10 as ten ones
        
        The teen numbers hard
        Understanding 10 as a bundle builds on understanding teen numbers as 'a ten and some ones'
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding tens-and-ones composition requires cardinality — knowing numbers represent quantities
        
        Reading and writing numbers to 20 hard
        Composing/decomposing teen numbers requires reading and writing those numerals
        
        The two digits of a two-digit number hard
        Must understand two-digit place value before extending to hundreds
        
        A Ten Is Ten Ones hard
        Understanding tens and ones place value requires the concept of 10 as a bundle
        
        The teen numbers hard
        Understanding 10 as a bundle builds on understanding teen numbers as 'a ten and some ones'
        
        The teen numbers hard
        General two-digit place value extends from understanding teen number composition
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding tens-and-ones composition requires cardinality — knowing numbers represent quantities
        
        Reading and writing numbers to 20 hard
        Composing/decomposing teen numbers requires reading and writing those numerals
        
        The two digits of a two-digit number hard
        Three-digit PV extends two-digit PV (tens and ones)
        
        A Ten Is Ten Ones hard
        Understanding tens and ones place value requires the concept of 10 as a bundle
        
        The teen numbers hard
        Understanding 10 as a bundle builds on understanding teen numbers as 'a ten and some ones'
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding tens-and-ones composition requires cardinality — knowing numbers represent quantities
        
        Reading and writing numbers to 20 hard
        Composing/decomposing teen numbers requires reading and writing those numerals
        
        The teen numbers hard
        General two-digit place value extends from understanding teen number composition
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding tens-and-ones composition requires cardinality — knowing numbers represent quantities
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
        
        Reading and writing numbers to 20 hard
        Composing/decomposing teen numbers requires reading and writing those numerals
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Reading/writing numerals 0–20 requires understanding that numerals represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        Writing digits 0-9 hard
        Writing numerals requires the motor skill of forming digits 0-9 (taught in English handwriting)
        
        Fluent adding and subtracting within 100 hard
        Adding/subtracting within 1000 extends within-100 skills
        
        Adding within 100 hard
        Fluency within 100 builds on strategy-based adding within 100
        
        Addition and subtraction within 20 hard
        Adding within 100 extends within-20 strategies to larger numbers
        
        Number bonds to 9 hard
        Making-ten strategy requires knowing bonds to 10
        
        Numbers up to 10 into pairs hard
        Making 10 is a specific application of decomposing numbers into pairs
        
        Fluent adding and subtracting within 10 hard
        Strategies for within-20 calculation build on fluent within-10 knowledge
        
        Number bonds to 9 hard
        Fluency within 10 requires knowing number bonds to 10
        
        Fluent adding and subtracting within 5 hard
        Fluency within 10 extends from fluency within 5
        
        The two digits of a two-digit number hard
        Adding within 100 using PV requires understanding tens and ones
        
        A Ten Is Ten Ones hard
        Understanding tens and ones place value requires the concept of 10 as a bundle
        
        The teen numbers hard
        Understanding 10 as a bundle builds on understanding teen numbers as 'a ten and some ones'
        
        The teen numbers hard
        General two-digit place value extends from understanding teen number composition
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding tens-and-ones composition requires cardinality — knowing numbers represent quantities
        
        Reading and writing numbers to 20 hard
        Composing/decomposing teen numbers requires reading and writing those numerals
        
        Fluent adding and subtracting within 20 hard
        Fluency within 100 requires fluent single-digit facts
        
        Addition and subtraction within 20 hard
        Fluency within 20 requires prior strategy-based adding/subtracting within 20
        
        Number bonds to 9 hard
        Making-ten strategy requires knowing bonds to 10
        
        Numbers up to 10 into pairs hard
        Making 10 is a specific application of decomposing numbers into pairs
        
        Fluent adding and subtracting within 10 hard
        Strategies for within-20 calculation build on fluent within-10 knowledge
        
        Number bonds to 9 hard
        Fluency within 10 requires knowing number bonds to 10
        
        Fluent adding and subtracting within 5 hard
        Fluency within 10 extends from fluency within 5
        
        Fluent adding and subtracting within 10 hard
        Fluency within 20 builds on fluency within 10
        
        Number bonds to 9 hard
        Fluency within 10 requires knowing number bonds to 10
        
        Numbers up to 10 into pairs hard
        Making 10 is a specific application of decomposing numbers into pairs
        
        Fluent adding and subtracting within 5 hard
        Fluency within 10 extends from fluency within 5
        
        Addition as combining or putting together two hard
        Fluency with addition within 5 requires understanding addition as combining
        
        Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
        Fluency with subtraction within 5 requires understanding subtraction as taking away
      - Two-Step Word Problems hard
        Complex missing-number problems extend simpler word problems
        
        Fluent adding and subtracting within 100 hard
        Solving word problems within 100 requires fluent computation within 100
        
        Adding within 100 hard
        Fluency within 100 builds on strategy-based adding within 100
        
        Addition and subtraction within 20 hard
        Adding within 100 extends within-20 strategies to larger numbers
        
        Number bonds to 9 hard
        Making-ten strategy requires knowing bonds to 10
        
        Numbers up to 10 into pairs hard
        Making 10 is a specific application of decomposing numbers into pairs
        
        Addition as combining or putting together two hard
        Decomposing numbers into pairs requires understanding addition as combining
        
        Fluent adding and subtracting within 10 hard
        Strategies for within-20 calculation build on fluent within-10 knowledge
        
        Number bonds to 9 hard
        Fluency within 10 requires knowing number bonds to 10
        
        Numbers up to 10 into pairs hard
        Making 10 is a specific application of decomposing numbers into pairs
        
        Fluent adding and subtracting within 5 hard
        Fluency within 10 extends from fluency within 5
        
        Addition as combining or putting together two hard
        Fluency with addition within 5 requires understanding addition as combining
        
        Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
        Fluency with subtraction within 5 requires understanding subtraction as taking away
        
        The two digits of a two-digit number hard
        Adding within 100 using PV requires understanding tens and ones
        
        A Ten Is Ten Ones hard
        Understanding tens and ones place value requires the concept of 10 as a bundle
        
        The teen numbers hard
        Understanding 10 as a bundle builds on understanding teen numbers as 'a ten and some ones'
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding tens-and-ones composition requires cardinality — knowing numbers represent quantities
        
        Reading and writing numbers to 20 hard
        Composing/decomposing teen numbers requires reading and writing those numerals
        
        The teen numbers hard
        General two-digit place value extends from understanding teen number composition
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding tens-and-ones composition requires cardinality — knowing numbers represent quantities
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
        
        Reading and writing numbers to 20 hard
        Composing/decomposing teen numbers requires reading and writing those numerals
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Reading/writing numerals 0–20 requires understanding that numerals represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        Writing digits 0-9 hard
        Writing numerals requires the motor skill of forming digits 0-9 (taught in English handwriting)
        
        Fluent adding and subtracting within 20 hard
        Fluency within 100 requires fluent single-digit facts
        
        Addition and subtraction within 20 hard
        Fluency within 20 requires prior strategy-based adding/subtracting within 20
        
        Number bonds to 9 hard
        Making-ten strategy requires knowing bonds to 10
        
        Numbers up to 10 into pairs hard
        Making 10 is a specific application of decomposing numbers into pairs
        
        Addition as combining or putting together two hard
        Decomposing numbers into pairs requires understanding addition as combining
        
        Fluent adding and subtracting within 10 hard
        Strategies for within-20 calculation build on fluent within-10 knowledge
        
        Number bonds to 9 hard
        Fluency within 10 requires knowing number bonds to 10
        
        Numbers up to 10 into pairs hard
        Making 10 is a specific application of decomposing numbers into pairs
        
        Fluent adding and subtracting within 5 hard
        Fluency within 10 extends from fluency within 5
        
        Addition as combining or putting together two hard
        Fluency with addition within 5 requires understanding addition as combining
        
        Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
        Fluency with subtraction within 5 requires understanding subtraction as taking away
        
        Fluent adding and subtracting within 10 hard
        Fluency within 20 builds on fluency within 10
        
        Number bonds to 9 hard
        Fluency within 10 requires knowing number bonds to 10
        
        Numbers up to 10 into pairs hard
        Making 10 is a specific application of decomposing numbers into pairs
        
        Addition as combining or putting together two hard
        Decomposing numbers into pairs requires understanding addition as combining
        
        Fluent adding and subtracting within 5 hard
        Fluency within 10 extends from fluency within 5
        
        Addition as combining or putting together two hard
        Fluency with addition within 5 requires understanding addition as combining
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
        Fluency with subtraction within 5 requires understanding subtraction as taking away
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding subtraction as taking away requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        Early Word Problems hard
        Word problems within 100 extend word problems within 20
        
        Adding and subtracting hard
        Word problems to 20 require the procedural ability to add/subtract to 20
        
        Number bonds hard
        Adding/subtracting to 20 procedurally requires knowing the number bonds
        
        Number bonds to 9 hard
        Number bonds within 20 builds on knowing bonds to 10
        
        Numbers up to 10 into pairs hard
        Making 10 is a specific application of decomposing numbers into pairs
        
        Addition as combining or putting together two hard
        Decomposing numbers into pairs requires understanding addition as combining
        
        Fluent adding and subtracting within 5 hard
        Recalling bonds within 20 builds on fluency within 5
        
        Addition as combining or putting together two hard
        Fluency with addition within 5 requires understanding addition as combining
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
        Fluency with subtraction within 5 requires understanding subtraction as taking away
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding subtraction as taking away requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        Addition and subtraction word problems soft
        Word problems to 20 extend from word problems within 10 — same problem structures at a higher range
        
        Representing Addition and Subtraction hard
        Solving word problems within 10 requires ability to represent the operations with objects/drawings
        
        Addition as combining or putting together two hard
        Representing addition with objects/drawings requires understanding what addition means
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
        
        Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
        Representing subtraction with objects/drawings requires understanding what subtraction means
        
        How Many in Total? hard
        Understanding subtraction as taking away requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
        
        One-to-one counting hard
        Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
  - Learning from Mistakes hard
    Evaluating whether a strategy helped requires being able to analyse what went wrong when it didn't
    - Checking Your Own Work soft
      Investigating why something was wrong grows from the earlier habit of checking whether an answer seems right
    - Trying a New Approach hard
      Error analysis requires the habit of trying different approaches — you need to have tried something before you can analyse what went wrong
      - Feeling of not understanding hard
        Strategy switching is triggered by noticing the current approach isn't working — requires comprehension monitoring
        
        Asking for Help hard
        Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
      - Planning a Task hard
        Switching strategy requires first having made a plan — you can only switch away from something you chose deliberately
        
        Checking Your Own Work hard
        Planning before a task grows from the habit of checking back after finishing — both are self-regulatory bookends
- Fair testing hard
  Must set up simple fair tests before independently planning enquiries with variable control
  - Simple tests and experiments hard
    Must do simple tests before setting up formal fair tests with controlled variables
    - Observing with simple equipment hard
      Must observe closely before performing simple tests
      - Asking scientific questions hard
        Must ask questions before learning to observe closely
        
        Asking Questions soft
        Formulating scientific questions builds on the general skill of asking relevant questions to extend understanding, developed in English speaking and listening
        
        Question Words hard
        Generating effective questions requires knowledge of question words (who, what, where, when, why, how)
        
        Listening and responding soft
        Listening and responding supports learning question words
        
        Listening and responding hard
        Listening and responding needed before asking questions
        
        Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
        Related speaking skill supports this topic
        
        Feeling of not understanding soft
        Using talk to explore ideas and speculate requires noticing what you don't yet understand — the comprehension-monitoring habit in a spoken register
        
        Asking for Help hard
        Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
        
        Observation vs Interpretation soft
        Asking good scientific questions requires noticing the distinction between observation and interpretation — a question like 'why did this happen?' only makes sense once you've separated what you saw from what you inferred
        
        Feeling of not understanding soft
        Noticing the observation/interpretation distinction requires monitoring your own thinking — the universal comprehension-monitoring habit applied to scientific reasoning
        
        Asking for Help hard
        Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
        
        Feeling of not understanding soft
        Asking scientific questions is the science-domain expression of the universal comprehension-monitoring habit: noticing what you don't yet understand
        
        Asking for Help hard
        Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
        
        Persisting When It's Hard soft
        Scientific enquiry requires persistence through uncertainty — the universal persistence habit underpins willingness to keep investigating
- Planning a Task soft
  Planning a scientific enquiry is the domain-specific application of the universal task-planning habit
  - Checking Your Own Work hard
    Planning before a task grows from the habit of checking back after finishing — both are self-regulatory bookends
Describing Rules & Patterns soft
Using test results to make predictions and set up further tests is the science form of the universal generalisation habit — describing a pattern as a rule and testing it further
- Spotting Patterns hard
  Generalising a rule requires first being able to spot the recurring pattern that the rule captures
  - Connecting New & Old Ideas soft
    Spotting patterns across domains is an extension of the habit of connecting new ideas to existing ones
    - Thinking Before Starting hard
      Making connections between new and old ideas requires the habit of activating prior knowledge first
      - Persisting When It's Hard hard
        Activating prior knowledge requires the foundational habit of persistent engagement with new material

Unlocks1

Drawing conclusions from evidence (age 9+)
softAges 9—11