Who Really Built the Pyramids
METAAnalyse who built the pyramids and why, evaluating the evidence against the alien-builder myth and the slave-labour myth: archaeological evidence from worker villages at Giza shows a paid, skilled, well-fed workforce; discuss the social functions of monument building as a form of state organisation, religious duty, and employment; and assess the current controversy over newly discovered construction ramps and logistics
Mastery Evidence
- Cites at least three pieces of archaeological evidence from Giza that point to an organised, skilled, fed workforce rather than slaves or aliens (e.g. worker villages, bakery remains, graffiti tags, medical care)
- Explains why the alien hypothesis fails to meet the standards of historical evidence and what the burden of proof in history requires
- Evaluates at least two proposed explanations for ramp logistics and describes which is currently supported by the most evidence
Assessment Prompt
“If [child] saw a documentary claiming aliens built the pyramids, could they explain why archaeologists reject this idea and describe the actual evidence for who built them — and what their working conditions were like?”
Prerequisites4
- Building the PyramidshardAges 7—9
- Evidence Versus InterpretationsoftAges 10—11
- Persuasive WritingsoftAges 11—14
- Checking Sources Against Each OthersoftAges 8—10
Show full prerequisite tree
- Building the Pyramids hard
Advanced architectural analysis depends on understanding Egyptian monumental construction context
- Calculating with measurements soft
Understanding measurement of length and mass helps children appreciate the scale of engineering involved in moving and lifting multi-tonne stone blocks
- Comparing and ordering measurements hard
Extends comparing/ordering measures to adding/subtracting them
- Choosing measurement units hard
Comparing and ordering measurements with symbols requires being able to measure in standard units
- Capacity and volume hard
Using standard units for capacity extends from beginning to measure capacity
- Comparing Capacity hard
Measuring capacity with units requires first being able to compare capacities
- Measurable Attributes of Objects hard
Comparing capacity requires understanding capacity as a measurable attribute
- Measuring length and height (age 5+) hard
Using standard units for length extends from beginning to measure length
- Comparing Lengths & Heights hard
Measuring length with units requires first being able to compare lengths directly
- Measurable Attributes of Objects hard
Comparing lengths/heights requires first identifying length as a measurable attribute
- Measuring mass and weight (age 4+) hard
Measuring mass with units requires first being able to compare masses directly
- Measurable Attributes of Objects hard
Comparing mass/weight requires first identifying mass as a measurable attribute
- The two digits of a two-digit number hard
Comparing two-digit numbers using PV requires understanding tens and ones
- A Ten Is Ten Ones hard
Understanding tens and ones place value requires the concept of 10 as a bundle
- The teen numbers hard
Understanding 10 as a bundle builds on understanding teen numbers as 'a ten and some ones'
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding tens-and-ones composition requires cardinality — knowing numbers represent quantities
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Reading and writing numbers to 20 hard
Composing/decomposing teen numbers requires reading and writing those numerals
- How Many in Total? hard
Reading/writing numerals 0–20 requires understanding that numerals represent quantities (cardinality)
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Writing digits 0-9 hard
Writing numerals requires the motor skill of forming digits 0-9 (taught in English handwriting)
- The teen numbers hard
General two-digit place value extends from understanding teen number composition
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding tens-and-ones composition requires cardinality — knowing numbers represent quantities
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Reading and writing numbers to 20 hard
Composing/decomposing teen numbers requires reading and writing those numerals
- How Many in Total? hard
Reading/writing numerals 0–20 requires understanding that numerals represent quantities (cardinality)
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Writing digits 0-9 hard
Writing numerals requires the motor skill of forming digits 0-9 (taught in English handwriting)
- Two written numerals between 1 and 10 soft
Comparing two-digit numbers extends from comparing single-digit written numerals
- Comparing groups: more or fewer soft
Comparing written numerals is the symbolic form of comparing quantities — conceptual comparison helps but isn't strictly required
- Counting objects to 20 soft
Counting a set helps when comparing groups, but younger children (GB age 4) can compare using matching without formal counting to 20
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Choosing measurement units hard
Extends Y2 standard unit measurement to include mm and to add/subtract measures
- Capacity and volume hard
Using standard units for capacity extends from beginning to measure capacity
- Comparing Capacity hard
Measuring capacity with units requires first being able to compare capacities
- Measurable Attributes of Objects hard
Comparing capacity requires understanding capacity as a measurable attribute
- Measuring length and height (age 5+) hard
Using standard units for length extends from beginning to measure length
- Comparing Lengths & Heights hard
Measuring length with units requires first being able to compare lengths directly
- Measurable Attributes of Objects hard
Comparing lengths/heights requires first identifying length as a measurable attribute
- Measuring mass and weight (age 4+) hard
Measuring mass with units requires first being able to compare masses directly
- Measurable Attributes of Objects hard
Comparing mass/weight requires first identifying mass as a measurable attribute
- Pyramids and the Great Sphinx hard
Pyramid construction and Valley of Kings builds on basic pyramids knowledge
- Vocabulary: ancient egypt hard
Knowing about pharaohs requires the term 'pharaoh' and associated vocabulary
- 3-D shapes soft
Recognising pyramids as a named 3D geometric shape makes study of the Great Pyramid's physical structure more concrete
- Vocabulary: ancient egypt hard
Describing the pyramids and Sphinx requires 'pyramid', 'sphinx', and related vocabulary
- Ancient Egypt on the Timeline soft
Tomb evolution from pyramids to Valley of Kings benefits from timeline context
- Days, Weeks, Months & Years soft
Placing ancient Egypt on a chronological timeline requires vocabulary for dates and time periods (BCE/CE, era, century)
- Ordering Events in Time hard
Understanding days/months/years builds on sequencing events chronologically
- Egyptian Timelines and Maps hard
Placing ancient Egypt in chronological context requires timeline reading and construction skills
- Telling time to the minute (age 9+) soft
Reading and constructing historical timelines requires understanding time unit conversions (decades, centuries, millennia)
- Calculating with measurements hard
Measuring in standard units is prerequisite to converting between units
- Comparing and ordering measurements hard
Extends comparing/ordering measures to adding/subtracting them
- Choosing measurement units hard
Comparing and ordering measurements with symbols requires being able to measure in standard units
- Capacity and volume hard
Using standard units for capacity extends from beginning to measure capacity
- Comparing Capacity hard
Measuring capacity with units requires first being able to compare capacities
- Measurable Attributes of Objects hard
Comparing capacity requires understanding capacity as a measurable attribute
- Measuring length and height (age 5+) hard
Using standard units for length extends from beginning to measure length
- Comparing Lengths & Heights hard
Measuring length with units requires first being able to compare lengths directly
- Measurable Attributes of Objects hard
Comparing lengths/heights requires first identifying length as a measurable attribute
- Measuring mass and weight (age 4+) hard
Measuring mass with units requires first being able to compare masses directly
- Measurable Attributes of Objects hard
Comparing mass/weight requires first identifying mass as a measurable attribute
- The two digits of a two-digit number hard
Comparing two-digit numbers using PV requires understanding tens and ones
- A Ten Is Ten Ones hard
Understanding tens and ones place value requires the concept of 10 as a bundle
- The teen numbers hard
Understanding 10 as a bundle builds on understanding teen numbers as 'a ten and some ones'
- The teen numbers hard
General two-digit place value extends from understanding teen number composition
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding tens-and-ones composition requires cardinality — knowing numbers represent quantities
- Reading and writing numbers to 20 hard
Composing/decomposing teen numbers requires reading and writing those numerals
- Two written numerals between 1 and 10 soft
Comparing two-digit numbers extends from comparing single-digit written numerals
- Comparing groups: more or fewer soft
Comparing written numerals is the symbolic form of comparing quantities — conceptual comparison helps but isn't strictly required
- Counting objects to 20 soft
Counting a set helps when comparing groups, but younger children (GB age 4) can compare using matching without formal counting to 20
- Choosing measurement units hard
Extends Y2 standard unit measurement to include mm and to add/subtract measures
- Capacity and volume hard
Using standard units for capacity extends from beginning to measure capacity
- Comparing Capacity hard
Measuring capacity with units requires first being able to compare capacities
- Measurable Attributes of Objects hard
Comparing capacity requires understanding capacity as a measurable attribute
- Measuring length and height (age 5+) hard
Using standard units for length extends from beginning to measure length
- Comparing Lengths & Heights hard
Measuring length with units requires first being able to compare lengths directly
- Measurable Attributes of Objects hard
Comparing lengths/heights requires first identifying length as a measurable attribute
- Measuring mass and weight (age 4+) hard
Measuring mass with units requires first being able to compare masses directly
- Measurable Attributes of Objects hard
Comparing mass/weight requires first identifying mass as a measurable attribute
- Time Units and Calendar Facts hard
Knowing seconds/minute, days/month etc. is prerequisite to unit conversion problems
- Number of minutes in an hour hard
Extends knowing minutes in an hour to seconds in a minute and days in months
- Telling time to the minute hard
Knowing 60 min = 1 hour and 24 hours = 1 day extends from measuring time in hours/minutes/seconds
- Comparing durations hard
Measuring time in units requires understanding time comparison language first
- Comparing Time Durations hard
Prior duration comparison experience feeds into elapsed-time problem solving
- Telling Time: Hours and Half Hours hard
Telling time to 5 minutes extends from telling time to the hour and half past
- Telling time to the minute hard
Telling time on a clock requires understanding hours and minutes as time units
- Sequence intervals of time hard
Extends comparing time intervals to recording in seconds, minutes, hours
- Comparing durations hard
Measuring time in units requires understanding time comparison language first
- Number of minutes in an hour hard
Extends knowing minutes in an hour to seconds in a minute and days in months
- Telling time to the minute hard
Knowing 60 min = 1 hour and 24 hours = 1 day extends from measuring time in hours/minutes/seconds
- Comparing durations hard
Measuring time in units requires understanding time comparison language first
- Telling time to the minute (age 8+) hard
Must read time to nearest minute before solving elapsed time problems
- Telling time to the minute (age 7+) hard
Tell time to 5 minutes is prerequisite to telling time to nearest minute
- Telling Time: Hours and Half Hours hard
Telling time to 5 minutes extends from telling time to the hour and half past
- How Many in Total? hard
Reading/writing numerals 0–20 requires understanding that numerals represent quantities (cardinality)
- Writing digits 0-9 hard
Writing numerals requires the motor skill of forming digits 0-9 (taught in English handwriting)
- Division as equal sharing hard
Finding a half requires equal sharing into 2 groups — a division concept
- Telling time to the minute hard
Telling time on a clock requires understanding hours and minutes as time units
- Comparing durations hard
Measuring time in units requires understanding time comparison language first
- First Quadrant Coordinates soft
Reading a timeline with a scale and reading coordinates on a grid share the same positional-notation skills
- Position, direction, and movement soft
Position/direction vocabulary supports understanding coordinate grid
- Positional Language hard
Position/direction vocabulary with right angles extends basic positional language
- Turns & Directions hard
Right-angle turns (clockwise/anti-clockwise) build directly on whole/half/quarter turns from Year 1
- What Is a Half? soft
Understanding half and quarter turns benefits from the concept of halves and quarters
- Division as equal sharing hard
Finding a half requires equal sharing into 2 groups — a division concept
- Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
Division as equal sharing/grouping requires understanding subtraction as taking away/separating
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding subtraction as taking away requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Pharaohs and Tutankhamun hard
3000-year timeline builds on knowing pharaohs like Tutankhamun as anchors
- Vocabulary: ancient egypt hard
Knowing about pharaohs requires the term 'pharaoh' and associated vocabulary
- Vocabulary: ancient egypt hard
Explaining how the pyramids were built requires pyramid, obelisk, and engineering vocabulary
- Evidence Versus Interpretation soft
Evaluating evidence against the alien-builder and slave-labour myths is the evidence-vs-interpretation distinction applied to a specific historical controversy
- Understanding People in Their Own Time soft
Recognising that interpretation is shaped by context — including the historian's own time and perspective — builds on the contextualisation habit
- Different Accounts of the Same Event hard
Contextualising past behaviour requires first accepting that the same event can look different from different viewpoints — contextualisation is the deeper explanation for why accounts differ
- Evidence from the Past hard
Recognising that accounts can differ requires first understanding that accounts exist because people left behind evidence
- Thinking Before Starting soft
Understanding that knowledge of the past comes from surviving evidence builds on the habit of activating prior knowledge — what do I already know, and where did that knowledge come from?
- Persisting When It's Hard hard
Activating prior knowledge requires the foundational habit of persistent engagement with new material
- Vocabulary: historical thinking hard
Understanding that everything we know comes from evidence requires 'evidence' and 'source' vocabulary
- Domain Vocabulary Across Subject Areas soft
Acquiring the specialist vocabulary of historical thinking (source, bias, chronology, corroborate) builds on the academic vocabulary development taught in English
- Discussing and Questioning New Words hard
Academic and domain-specific vocabulary acquisition builds on the habit of discussing word meanings and linking new vocabulary to known words
- Defining Words soft
Defining academic words requires the ability to define words by category and attribute
- How Many in Total? soft
Sorting and categorising objects uses the same counting/cardinality skills from maths
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Comparing Characters Across Stories soft
Recognising that different people give different accounts of the same event is the historical application of the English skill of comparing and contrasting two texts on the same topic
- Connecting New & Old Ideas soft
Comparing and contrasting characters or texts draws on the universal habit of connecting new ideas to existing knowledge
- Thinking Before Starting hard
Making connections between new and old ideas requires the habit of activating prior knowledge first
- Persisting When It's Hard hard
Activating prior knowledge requires the foundational habit of persistent engagement with new material
- Feelings Change and Differ soft
Comparing characters' adventures and reactions in stories is enriched by the foundational SEL understanding that the same event can make different people feel differently
- Spotting Patterns soft
Identifying patterns and similarities across texts is the reading form of the universal pattern-recognition habit
- Connecting New & Old Ideas soft
Spotting patterns across domains is an extension of the habit of connecting new ideas to existing ones
- Thinking Before Starting hard
Making connections between new and old ideas requires the habit of activating prior knowledge first
- Persisting When It's Hard hard
Activating prior knowledge requires the foundational habit of persistent engagement with new material
- Vocabulary: historical thinking hard
Recognising that different accounts exist requires 'source', 'perspective', and 'interpretation' vocabulary
- Domain Vocabulary Across Subject Areas soft
Acquiring the specialist vocabulary of historical thinking (source, bias, chronology, corroborate) builds on the academic vocabulary development taught in English
- Discussing and Questioning New Words hard
Academic and domain-specific vocabulary acquisition builds on the habit of discussing word meanings and linking new vocabulary to known words
- Defining Words soft
Defining academic words requires the ability to define words by category and attribute
- How Many in Total? soft
Sorting and categorising objects uses the same counting/cardinality skills from maths
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Spotting Patterns soft
Recognising that accounts diverge in systematic ways — based on who is telling the story — is an application of the universal pattern-recognition habit
- Connecting New & Old Ideas soft
Spotting patterns across domains is an extension of the habit of connecting new ideas to existing ones
- Thinking Before Starting hard
Making connections between new and old ideas requires the habit of activating prior knowledge first
- Persisting When It's Hard hard
Activating prior knowledge requires the foundational habit of persistent engagement with new material
- Connecting New & Old Ideas soft
Historical contextualisation requires connecting a person's actions to the world they inhabited — the same connecting habit used across all subjects
- Thinking Before Starting hard
Making connections between new and old ideas requires the habit of activating prior knowledge first
- Persisting When It's Hard hard
Activating prior knowledge requires the foundational habit of persistent engagement with new material
- Vocabulary: historical thinking soft
Judging historical actions in context draws on era, period, and chronology vocabulary
- Domain Vocabulary Across Subject Areas soft
Acquiring the specialist vocabulary of historical thinking (source, bias, chronology, corroborate) builds on the academic vocabulary development taught in English
- Discussing and Questioning New Words hard
Academic and domain-specific vocabulary acquisition builds on the habit of discussing word meanings and linking new vocabulary to known words
- Defining Words soft
Defining academic words requires the ability to define words by category and attribute
- How Many in Total? soft
Sorting and categorising objects uses the same counting/cardinality skills from maths
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Learning from Mistakes soft
Distinguishing evidence from interpretation requires analysing where claims come from and what might be wrong with them — the universal error-analysis habit applied to historical argument
- Checking Your Own Work soft
Investigating why something was wrong grows from the earlier habit of checking whether an answer seems right
- Trying a New Approach hard
Error analysis requires the habit of trying different approaches — you need to have tried something before you can analyse what went wrong
- Feeling of not understanding hard
Strategy switching is triggered by noticing the current approach isn't working — requires comprehension monitoring
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Planning a Task hard
Switching strategy requires first having made a plan — you can only switch away from something you chose deliberately
- Checking Your Own Work hard
Planning before a task grows from the habit of checking back after finishing — both are self-regulatory bookends
- Questioning Historical Sources hard
Distinguishing evidence from interpretation requires sourcing skill — you must understand who made the evidence and why before you can see that interpretations are layered on top
- Different Accounts of the Same Event hard
Sourcing — asking who made this and why — is the analytical tool for explaining why accounts of the same event differ
- Evidence from the Past hard
Recognising that accounts can differ requires first understanding that accounts exist because people left behind evidence
- Thinking Before Starting soft
Understanding that knowledge of the past comes from surviving evidence builds on the habit of activating prior knowledge — what do I already know, and where did that knowledge come from?
- Persisting When It's Hard hard
Activating prior knowledge requires the foundational habit of persistent engagement with new material
- Vocabulary: historical thinking hard
Understanding that everything we know comes from evidence requires 'evidence' and 'source' vocabulary
- Domain Vocabulary Across Subject Areas soft
Acquiring the specialist vocabulary of historical thinking (source, bias, chronology, corroborate) builds on the academic vocabulary development taught in English
- Discussing and Questioning New Words hard
Academic and domain-specific vocabulary acquisition builds on the habit of discussing word meanings and linking new vocabulary to known words
- Defining Words soft
Defining academic words requires the ability to define words by category and attribute
- How Many in Total? soft
Sorting and categorising objects uses the same counting/cardinality skills from maths
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Comparing Characters Across Stories soft
Recognising that different people give different accounts of the same event is the historical application of the English skill of comparing and contrasting two texts on the same topic
- Connecting New & Old Ideas soft
Comparing and contrasting characters or texts draws on the universal habit of connecting new ideas to existing knowledge
- Thinking Before Starting hard
Making connections between new and old ideas requires the habit of activating prior knowledge first
- Persisting When It's Hard hard
Activating prior knowledge requires the foundational habit of persistent engagement with new material
- Feelings Change and Differ soft
Comparing characters' adventures and reactions in stories is enriched by the foundational SEL understanding that the same event can make different people feel differently
- Spotting Patterns soft
Identifying patterns and similarities across texts is the reading form of the universal pattern-recognition habit
- Connecting New & Old Ideas soft
Spotting patterns across domains is an extension of the habit of connecting new ideas to existing ones
- Thinking Before Starting hard
Making connections between new and old ideas requires the habit of activating prior knowledge first
- Persisting When It's Hard hard
Activating prior knowledge requires the foundational habit of persistent engagement with new material
- Vocabulary: historical thinking hard
Recognising that different accounts exist requires 'source', 'perspective', and 'interpretation' vocabulary
- Domain Vocabulary Across Subject Areas soft
Acquiring the specialist vocabulary of historical thinking (source, bias, chronology, corroborate) builds on the academic vocabulary development taught in English
- Discussing and Questioning New Words hard
Academic and domain-specific vocabulary acquisition builds on the habit of discussing word meanings and linking new vocabulary to known words
- Defining Words soft
Defining academic words requires the ability to define words by category and attribute
- How Many in Total? soft
Sorting and categorising objects uses the same counting/cardinality skills from maths
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Spotting Patterns soft
Recognising that accounts diverge in systematic ways — based on who is telling the story — is an application of the universal pattern-recognition habit
- Connecting New & Old Ideas soft
Spotting patterns across domains is an extension of the habit of connecting new ideas to existing ones
- Thinking Before Starting hard
Making connections between new and old ideas requires the habit of activating prior knowledge first
- Persisting When It's Hard hard
Activating prior knowledge requires the foundational habit of persistent engagement with new material
- Reading between the lines soft
Interrogating historical sources with critical questions builds on the skill of asking and answering questions about key details in non-fiction texts
- Inferring Characters' Feelings and Motives soft
Asking who made a source, when, and why — and interpreting what that means — requires the inference skills developed in English reading comprehension
- Predicting what happens next soft
Drawing inferences about characters' feelings and justifying them with evidence is enriched by prior experience predicting what might happen next — both require reading ahead of the literal text
- Reading between the lines hard
Inferring characters' feelings/motives with evidence builds on identifying key details and making simple inferences
- Self-Correcting While Reading soft
Inferring and justifying inferences with text evidence requires the metacognitive habit of checking that the text makes sense as you read — a reader who doesn't self-monitor will miss the cues on which inference depends
- Monitoring Comprehension soft
Self-correcting while reading requires the awareness that decoding correctly is not the same as understanding
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Noticing the decoding/understanding gap is the English-specific form of the universal comprehension-monitoring habit
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Reading for Meaning hard
Noticing the gap between decoding and understanding requires first having the foundational idea that reading means making meaning
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Understanding that reading means making meaning is the English-domain grounding of the universal habit of noticing when you don't understand
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Checking that a text makes sense while reading and self-correcting is the reading-domain form of the universal comprehension-monitoring habit
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Reading with Expression and Accuracy soft
Reading comprehension monitoring builds on earlier fluency skills
- Blending Sounds to Read Words soft
Blending helps attempt unfamiliar words but sight words bypass phonics
- Story Sequence and Central Message soft
Drawing inferences about motivations is enriched by the prior ability to understand and discuss the sequence of events and connections between them — inference relies on understanding what happened and in what order
- Main Topic of Informational Texts soft
Understanding main topic and key details of informational texts supports discussing how items of information are related
- Reading with Expression and Accuracy soft
Expressive reading supports comprehension of sequence and meaning
- Blending Sounds to Read Words soft
Blending helps attempt unfamiliar words but sight words bypass phonics
- Domain Vocabulary Across Subject Areas soft
Drawing inferences from complex texts requires academic vocabulary for reasoning about evidence and argument
- Discussing and Questioning New Words hard
Academic and domain-specific vocabulary acquisition builds on the habit of discussing word meanings and linking new vocabulary to known words
- Defining Words soft
Defining academic words requires the ability to define words by category and attribute
- How Many in Total? soft
Sorting and categorising objects uses the same counting/cardinality skills from maths
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Vocabulary: historical thinking hard
Evaluating a source requires 'primary source', 'secondary source', 'bias' vocabulary
- Domain Vocabulary Across Subject Areas soft
Acquiring the specialist vocabulary of historical thinking (source, bias, chronology, corroborate) builds on the academic vocabulary development taught in English
- Discussing and Questioning New Words hard
Academic and domain-specific vocabulary acquisition builds on the habit of discussing word meanings and linking new vocabulary to known words
- Defining Words soft
Defining academic words requires the ability to define words by category and attribute
- How Many in Total? soft
Sorting and categorising objects uses the same counting/cardinality skills from maths
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Understanding Why soft
Sourcing is elaborative interrogation applied to historical documents — asking not just what it says but why it was made
- Teaching It Back hard
Asking 'why does this work?' requires first being able to explain what you know — interrogation builds on explanation
- Explaining Mathematical Reasoning soft
The universal self-explanation habit (LtL 7-8) builds on the maths-specific practice of explaining reasoning when prompted (MT 6-7)
- Showing Your Working hard
Age 6-7 explaining with diagrams/logic builds on age 5-6 showing and telling with objects
- Numbers up to 10 into pairs soft
Explaining part-part-whole decompositions exercises showing and telling
- Addition as combining or putting together two hard
Decomposing numbers into pairs requires understanding addition as combining
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Number bonds to 9 soft
Explaining how to find number bonds to 10 exercises showing thinking with objects
- Numbers up to 10 into pairs hard
Making 10 is a specific application of decomposing numbers into pairs
- Addition as combining or putting together two hard
Decomposing numbers into pairs requires understanding addition as combining
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Listening and responding soft
Explaining mathematical reasoning orally requires basic listening and responding skills
- What the equals sign means soft
Determining whether equations are true/false exercises evaluating and justifying
- Reading +, −, and = symbols hard
Deep understanding of = requires already being able to read and write number sentences
- Reading and writing numbers to 20 hard
Writing number sentences requires reading and writing numerals
- How Many in Total? hard
Reading/writing numerals 0–20 requires understanding that numerals represent quantities (cardinality)
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Writing digits 0-9 hard
Writing numerals requires the motor skill of forming digits 0-9 (taught in English handwriting)
- Addition as combining or putting together two hard
Reading/writing the + symbol requires understanding what addition means
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
Reading/writing the − symbol requires understanding what subtraction means
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding subtraction as taking away requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Addition as combining or putting together two hard
Understanding commutativity of addition requires understanding addition
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Thinking Before Starting hard
Explaining in your own words requires connecting new learning to existing knowledge already held in mind
- Persisting When It's Hard hard
Activating prior knowledge requires the foundational habit of persistent engagement with new material
- Vocabulary: historical thinking hard
Distinguishing evidence from interpretation requires both these terms as precise vocabulary
- Domain Vocabulary Across Subject Areas soft
Acquiring the specialist vocabulary of historical thinking (source, bias, chronology, corroborate) builds on the academic vocabulary development taught in English
- Discussing and Questioning New Words hard
Academic and domain-specific vocabulary acquisition builds on the habit of discussing word meanings and linking new vocabulary to known words
- Defining Words soft
Defining academic words requires the ability to define words by category and attribute
- How Many in Total? soft
Sorting and categorising objects uses the same counting/cardinality skills from maths
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Checking Sources Against Each Other hard
Understanding that the same evidence supports different interpretations requires first having practised comparing sources through corroboration
- Different Accounts of the Same Event soft
Corroboration builds directly on the understanding that accounts can differ — it is the systematic practice of comparing those differences
- Evidence from the Past hard
Recognising that accounts can differ requires first understanding that accounts exist because people left behind evidence
- Thinking Before Starting soft
Understanding that knowledge of the past comes from surviving evidence builds on the habit of activating prior knowledge — what do I already know, and where did that knowledge come from?
- Persisting When It's Hard hard
Activating prior knowledge requires the foundational habit of persistent engagement with new material
- Vocabulary: historical thinking hard
Understanding that everything we know comes from evidence requires 'evidence' and 'source' vocabulary
- Domain Vocabulary Across Subject Areas soft
Acquiring the specialist vocabulary of historical thinking (source, bias, chronology, corroborate) builds on the academic vocabulary development taught in English
- Discussing and Questioning New Words hard
Academic and domain-specific vocabulary acquisition builds on the habit of discussing word meanings and linking new vocabulary to known words
- Defining Words soft
Defining academic words requires the ability to define words by category and attribute
- How Many in Total? soft
Sorting and categorising objects uses the same counting/cardinality skills from maths
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Comparing Characters Across Stories soft
Recognising that different people give different accounts of the same event is the historical application of the English skill of comparing and contrasting two texts on the same topic
- Connecting New & Old Ideas soft
Comparing and contrasting characters or texts draws on the universal habit of connecting new ideas to existing knowledge
- Thinking Before Starting hard
Making connections between new and old ideas requires the habit of activating prior knowledge first
- Persisting When It's Hard hard
Activating prior knowledge requires the foundational habit of persistent engagement with new material
- Feelings Change and Differ soft
Comparing characters' adventures and reactions in stories is enriched by the foundational SEL understanding that the same event can make different people feel differently
- Spotting Patterns soft
Identifying patterns and similarities across texts is the reading form of the universal pattern-recognition habit
- Connecting New & Old Ideas soft
Spotting patterns across domains is an extension of the habit of connecting new ideas to existing ones
- Thinking Before Starting hard
Making connections between new and old ideas requires the habit of activating prior knowledge first
- Persisting When It's Hard hard
Activating prior knowledge requires the foundational habit of persistent engagement with new material
- Vocabulary: historical thinking hard
Recognising that different accounts exist requires 'source', 'perspective', and 'interpretation' vocabulary
- Domain Vocabulary Across Subject Areas soft
Acquiring the specialist vocabulary of historical thinking (source, bias, chronology, corroborate) builds on the academic vocabulary development taught in English
- Discussing and Questioning New Words hard
Academic and domain-specific vocabulary acquisition builds on the habit of discussing word meanings and linking new vocabulary to known words
- Defining Words soft
Defining academic words requires the ability to define words by category and attribute
- How Many in Total? soft
Sorting and categorising objects uses the same counting/cardinality skills from maths
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Spotting Patterns soft
Recognising that accounts diverge in systematic ways — based on who is telling the story — is an application of the universal pattern-recognition habit
- Connecting New & Old Ideas soft
Spotting patterns across domains is an extension of the habit of connecting new ideas to existing ones
- Thinking Before Starting hard
Making connections between new and old ideas requires the habit of activating prior knowledge first
- Persisting When It's Hard hard
Activating prior knowledge requires the foundational habit of persistent engagement with new material
- Describing Rules & Patterns soft
Corroboration involves forming a generalisation from multiple instances of evidence — the universal generalisation habit applied to historical sources
- Spotting Patterns hard
Generalising a rule requires first being able to spot the recurring pattern that the rule captures
- Connecting New & Old Ideas soft
Spotting patterns across domains is an extension of the habit of connecting new ideas to existing ones
- Thinking Before Starting hard
Making connections between new and old ideas requires the habit of activating prior knowledge first
- Persisting When It's Hard hard
Activating prior knowledge requires the foundational habit of persistent engagement with new material
- Questioning Historical Sources hard
Corroborating across sources requires first knowing how to evaluate each source individually through sourcing
- Different Accounts of the Same Event hard
Sourcing — asking who made this and why — is the analytical tool for explaining why accounts of the same event differ
- Evidence from the Past hard
Recognising that accounts can differ requires first understanding that accounts exist because people left behind evidence
- Thinking Before Starting soft
Understanding that knowledge of the past comes from surviving evidence builds on the habit of activating prior knowledge — what do I already know, and where did that knowledge come from?
- Persisting When It's Hard hard
Activating prior knowledge requires the foundational habit of persistent engagement with new material
- Vocabulary: historical thinking hard
Understanding that everything we know comes from evidence requires 'evidence' and 'source' vocabulary
- Domain Vocabulary Across Subject Areas soft
Acquiring the specialist vocabulary of historical thinking (source, bias, chronology, corroborate) builds on the academic vocabulary development taught in English
- Discussing and Questioning New Words hard
Academic and domain-specific vocabulary acquisition builds on the habit of discussing word meanings and linking new vocabulary to known words
- Defining Words soft
Defining academic words requires the ability to define words by category and attribute
- How Many in Total? soft
Sorting and categorising objects uses the same counting/cardinality skills from maths
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Comparing Characters Across Stories soft
Recognising that different people give different accounts of the same event is the historical application of the English skill of comparing and contrasting two texts on the same topic
- Connecting New & Old Ideas soft
Comparing and contrasting characters or texts draws on the universal habit of connecting new ideas to existing knowledge
- Thinking Before Starting hard
Making connections between new and old ideas requires the habit of activating prior knowledge first
- Persisting When It's Hard hard
Activating prior knowledge requires the foundational habit of persistent engagement with new material
- Feelings Change and Differ soft
Comparing characters' adventures and reactions in stories is enriched by the foundational SEL understanding that the same event can make different people feel differently
- Spotting Patterns soft
Identifying patterns and similarities across texts is the reading form of the universal pattern-recognition habit
- Connecting New & Old Ideas soft
Spotting patterns across domains is an extension of the habit of connecting new ideas to existing ones
- Thinking Before Starting hard
Making connections between new and old ideas requires the habit of activating prior knowledge first
- Persisting When It's Hard hard
Activating prior knowledge requires the foundational habit of persistent engagement with new material
- Vocabulary: historical thinking hard
Recognising that different accounts exist requires 'source', 'perspective', and 'interpretation' vocabulary
- Domain Vocabulary Across Subject Areas soft
Acquiring the specialist vocabulary of historical thinking (source, bias, chronology, corroborate) builds on the academic vocabulary development taught in English
- Discussing and Questioning New Words hard
Academic and domain-specific vocabulary acquisition builds on the habit of discussing word meanings and linking new vocabulary to known words
- Defining Words soft
Defining academic words requires the ability to define words by category and attribute
- How Many in Total? soft
Sorting and categorising objects uses the same counting/cardinality skills from maths
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Spotting Patterns soft
Recognising that accounts diverge in systematic ways — based on who is telling the story — is an application of the universal pattern-recognition habit
- Connecting New & Old Ideas soft
Spotting patterns across domains is an extension of the habit of connecting new ideas to existing ones
- Thinking Before Starting hard
Making connections between new and old ideas requires the habit of activating prior knowledge first
- Persisting When It's Hard hard
Activating prior knowledge requires the foundational habit of persistent engagement with new material
- Reading between the lines soft
Interrogating historical sources with critical questions builds on the skill of asking and answering questions about key details in non-fiction texts
- Inferring Characters' Feelings and Motives soft
Asking who made a source, when, and why — and interpreting what that means — requires the inference skills developed in English reading comprehension
- Predicting what happens next soft
Drawing inferences about characters' feelings and justifying them with evidence is enriched by prior experience predicting what might happen next — both require reading ahead of the literal text
- Reading between the lines hard
Inferring characters' feelings/motives with evidence builds on identifying key details and making simple inferences
- Self-Correcting While Reading soft
Inferring and justifying inferences with text evidence requires the metacognitive habit of checking that the text makes sense as you read — a reader who doesn't self-monitor will miss the cues on which inference depends
- Monitoring Comprehension soft
Self-correcting while reading requires the awareness that decoding correctly is not the same as understanding
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Noticing the decoding/understanding gap is the English-specific form of the universal comprehension-monitoring habit
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Reading for Meaning hard
Noticing the gap between decoding and understanding requires first having the foundational idea that reading means making meaning
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Understanding that reading means making meaning is the English-domain grounding of the universal habit of noticing when you don't understand
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Checking that a text makes sense while reading and self-correcting is the reading-domain form of the universal comprehension-monitoring habit
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Reading with Expression and Accuracy soft
Reading comprehension monitoring builds on earlier fluency skills
- Blending Sounds to Read Words soft
Blending helps attempt unfamiliar words but sight words bypass phonics
- Story Sequence and Central Message soft
Drawing inferences about motivations is enriched by the prior ability to understand and discuss the sequence of events and connections between them — inference relies on understanding what happened and in what order
- Main Topic of Informational Texts soft
Understanding main topic and key details of informational texts supports discussing how items of information are related
- Reading with Expression and Accuracy soft
Expressive reading supports comprehension of sequence and meaning
- Blending Sounds to Read Words soft
Blending helps attempt unfamiliar words but sight words bypass phonics
- Domain Vocabulary Across Subject Areas soft
Drawing inferences from complex texts requires academic vocabulary for reasoning about evidence and argument
- Discussing and Questioning New Words hard
Academic and domain-specific vocabulary acquisition builds on the habit of discussing word meanings and linking new vocabulary to known words
- Defining Words soft
Defining academic words requires the ability to define words by category and attribute
- How Many in Total? soft
Sorting and categorising objects uses the same counting/cardinality skills from maths
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Vocabulary: historical thinking hard
Evaluating a source requires 'primary source', 'secondary source', 'bias' vocabulary
- Domain Vocabulary Across Subject Areas soft
Acquiring the specialist vocabulary of historical thinking (source, bias, chronology, corroborate) builds on the academic vocabulary development taught in English
- Discussing and Questioning New Words hard
Academic and domain-specific vocabulary acquisition builds on the habit of discussing word meanings and linking new vocabulary to known words
- Defining Words soft
Defining academic words requires the ability to define words by category and attribute
- How Many in Total? soft
Sorting and categorising objects uses the same counting/cardinality skills from maths
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Understanding Why soft
Sourcing is elaborative interrogation applied to historical documents — asking not just what it says but why it was made
- Teaching It Back hard
Asking 'why does this work?' requires first being able to explain what you know — interrogation builds on explanation
- Explaining Mathematical Reasoning soft
The universal self-explanation habit (LtL 7-8) builds on the maths-specific practice of explaining reasoning when prompted (MT 6-7)
- Showing Your Working hard
Age 6-7 explaining with diagrams/logic builds on age 5-6 showing and telling with objects
- Numbers up to 10 into pairs soft
Explaining part-part-whole decompositions exercises showing and telling
- Addition as combining or putting together two hard
Decomposing numbers into pairs requires understanding addition as combining
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Number bonds to 9 soft
Explaining how to find number bonds to 10 exercises showing thinking with objects
- Numbers up to 10 into pairs hard
Making 10 is a specific application of decomposing numbers into pairs
- Addition as combining or putting together two hard
Decomposing numbers into pairs requires understanding addition as combining
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
- Listening and responding soft
Explaining mathematical reasoning orally requires basic listening and responding skills
- What the equals sign means soft
Determining whether equations are true/false exercises evaluating and justifying
- Reading +, −, and = symbols hard
Deep understanding of = requires already being able to read and write number sentences
- Reading and writing numbers to 20 hard
Writing number sentences requires reading and writing numerals
- How Many in Total? hard
Reading/writing numerals 0–20 requires understanding that numerals represent quantities (cardinality)
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Writing digits 0-9 hard
Writing numerals requires the motor skill of forming digits 0-9 (taught in English handwriting)
- Addition as combining or putting together two hard
Reading/writing the + symbol requires understanding what addition means
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
Reading/writing the − symbol requires understanding what subtraction means
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding subtraction as taking away requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Addition as combining or putting together two hard
Understanding commutativity of addition requires understanding addition
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Thinking Before Starting hard
Explaining in your own words requires connecting new learning to existing knowledge already held in mind
- Persisting When It's Hard hard
Activating prior knowledge requires the foundational habit of persistent engagement with new material
- Vocabulary: historical thinking hard
Corroborating sources requires the term 'corroborate' and 'evidence'
- Domain Vocabulary Across Subject Areas soft
Acquiring the specialist vocabulary of historical thinking (source, bias, chronology, corroborate) builds on the academic vocabulary development taught in English
- Discussing and Questioning New Words hard
Academic and domain-specific vocabulary acquisition builds on the habit of discussing word meanings and linking new vocabulary to known words
- Defining Words soft
Defining academic words requires the ability to define words by category and attribute
- How Many in Total? soft
Sorting and categorising objects uses the same counting/cardinality skills from maths
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Evidence-Based Writing soft
Corroborating information across multiple historical sources requires the skill of drawing and evaluating evidence from informational texts, as taught in English
- Short Research Projects soft
Research and note-taking skills support the ability to gather and organise evidence from informational sources
- Writing Process Vocabulary soft
Shared research and writing uses 'genre', 'purpose', 'audience', 'plan', and 'draft' vocabulary
- Writing Craft Vocabulary soft
Research projects require 'evidence', 'argument', 'perspective', and 'purpose' vocabulary
- Representing numbers with objects (age 8+) soft
Cross-subject: independent research projects may involve collecting and presenting data using charts and graphs
- Pictograms and tally charts hard
Constructing simple pictograms/tables is prerequisite to scaled versions
- Pictograms and tally charts (age 6+) hard
Constructing pictograms, tally charts, and bar charts requires these display vocabulary terms
- Sorting into categories hard
Constructing pictograms and tally charts requires classifying and counting objects first
- Comparing groups: more or fewer soft
Sorting categories by count benefits from ability to compare quantities
- Counting objects to 20 soft
Counting a set helps when comparing groups, but younger children (GB age 4) can compare using matching without formal counting to 20
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Counting objects to 20 hard
Counting objects in each category requires being able to count sets of objects
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Sorting Data into Categories soft
Data representation formats (pictograms, tally charts) support organising data
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Pictograms and tally charts (age 6+) hard
Organising and representing data requires data, tally, frequency, and category vocabulary
- Sorting into categories hard
Organising data in categories builds on classifying and counting objects in categories
- Comparing groups: more or fewer soft
Sorting categories by count benefits from ability to compare quantities
- Counting objects to 20 soft
Counting a set helps when comparing groups, but younger children (GB age 4) can compare using matching without formal counting to 20
- Counting objects to 20 hard
Counting objects in each category requires being able to count sets of objects
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Pictograms and tally charts (age 6+) hard
Drawing scaled bar charts and pictograms requires axis, scale, label, and frequency vocabulary
- Sorting Data into Categories hard
Drawing picture/bar graphs extends organising and representing data
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Pictograms and tally charts (age 6+) hard
Organising and representing data requires data, tally, frequency, and category vocabulary
- Sorting into categories hard
Organising data in categories builds on classifying and counting objects in categories
- Comparing groups: more or fewer soft
Sorting categories by count benefits from ability to compare quantities
- Counting objects to 20 soft
Counting a set helps when comparing groups, but younger children (GB age 4) can compare using matching without formal counting to 20
- Counting objects to 20 hard
Counting objects in each category requires being able to count sets of objects
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Main Ideas & Note-Taking soft
Note-taking for research benefits from summarising and recording skills
- Main Topic of Informational Texts hard
Summarising builds on identifying main topic in informational texts
- Self-Correcting While Reading soft
Retrieving and summarising main ideas from multi-paragraph texts requires active self-monitoring comprehension — noticing when something doesn't make sense and re-reading to fix it
- Monitoring Comprehension soft
Self-correcting while reading requires the awareness that decoding correctly is not the same as understanding
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Noticing the decoding/understanding gap is the English-specific form of the universal comprehension-monitoring habit
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Reading for Meaning hard
Noticing the gap between decoding and understanding requires first having the foundational idea that reading means making meaning
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Understanding that reading means making meaning is the English-domain grounding of the universal habit of noticing when you don't understand
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Checking that a text makes sense while reading and self-correcting is the reading-domain form of the universal comprehension-monitoring habit
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Reading with Expression and Accuracy soft
Reading comprehension monitoring builds on earlier fluency skills
- Blending Sounds to Read Words soft
Blending helps attempt unfamiliar words but sight words bypass phonics
- Story Sequence and Central Message hard
Identifying main ideas from multiple paragraphs and summarising builds on the prior skill of discussing sequence of events and how information items are related in shorter texts
- Main Topic of Informational Texts soft
Understanding main topic and key details of informational texts supports discussing how items of information are related
- Reading with Expression and Accuracy soft
Expressive reading supports comprehension of sequence and meaning
- Blending Sounds to Read Words soft
Blending helps attempt unfamiliar words but sight words bypass phonics
- Main Topic of Informational Texts hard
Non-fiction structures build on Y1 informational text main topic
- Main Topic & Key Details hard
Drawing evidence from informational texts requires the ability to identify main ideas across paragraphs
- Main Topic of Informational Texts hard
Multi-paragraph main idea analysis builds on identifying main topic and key details in simpler texts
- Evidence-Based Writing soft
Distinguishing historical evidence from interpretation requires careful reading of informational sources — a skill developed through English non-fiction comprehension
- Short Research Projects soft
Research and note-taking skills support the ability to gather and organise evidence from informational sources
- Writing Process Vocabulary soft
Shared research and writing uses 'genre', 'purpose', 'audience', 'plan', and 'draft' vocabulary
- Writing Craft Vocabulary soft
Research projects require 'evidence', 'argument', 'perspective', and 'purpose' vocabulary
- Representing numbers with objects (age 8+) soft
Cross-subject: independent research projects may involve collecting and presenting data using charts and graphs
- Pictograms and tally charts hard
Constructing simple pictograms/tables is prerequisite to scaled versions
- Pictograms and tally charts (age 6+) hard
Constructing pictograms, tally charts, and bar charts requires these display vocabulary terms
- Sorting into categories hard
Constructing pictograms and tally charts requires classifying and counting objects first
- Comparing groups: more or fewer soft
Sorting categories by count benefits from ability to compare quantities
- Counting objects to 20 soft
Counting a set helps when comparing groups, but younger children (GB age 4) can compare using matching without formal counting to 20
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Counting objects to 20 hard
Counting objects in each category requires being able to count sets of objects
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Sorting Data into Categories soft
Data representation formats (pictograms, tally charts) support organising data
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Pictograms and tally charts (age 6+) hard
Organising and representing data requires data, tally, frequency, and category vocabulary
- Sorting into categories hard
Organising data in categories builds on classifying and counting objects in categories
- Comparing groups: more or fewer soft
Sorting categories by count benefits from ability to compare quantities
- Counting objects to 20 soft
Counting a set helps when comparing groups, but younger children (GB age 4) can compare using matching without formal counting to 20
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Counting objects to 20 hard
Counting objects in each category requires being able to count sets of objects
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Pictograms and tally charts (age 6+) hard
Drawing scaled bar charts and pictograms requires axis, scale, label, and frequency vocabulary
- Sorting Data into Categories hard
Drawing picture/bar graphs extends organising and representing data
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Pictograms and tally charts (age 6+) hard
Organising and representing data requires data, tally, frequency, and category vocabulary
- Sorting into categories hard
Organising data in categories builds on classifying and counting objects in categories
- Comparing groups: more or fewer soft
Sorting categories by count benefits from ability to compare quantities
- Counting objects to 20 soft
Counting a set helps when comparing groups, but younger children (GB age 4) can compare using matching without formal counting to 20
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Counting objects to 20 hard
Counting objects in each category requires being able to count sets of objects
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Main Ideas & Note-Taking soft
Note-taking for research benefits from summarising and recording skills
- Main Topic of Informational Texts hard
Summarising builds on identifying main topic in informational texts
- Self-Correcting While Reading soft
Retrieving and summarising main ideas from multi-paragraph texts requires active self-monitoring comprehension — noticing when something doesn't make sense and re-reading to fix it
- Monitoring Comprehension soft
Self-correcting while reading requires the awareness that decoding correctly is not the same as understanding
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Noticing the decoding/understanding gap is the English-specific form of the universal comprehension-monitoring habit
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Reading for Meaning hard
Noticing the gap between decoding and understanding requires first having the foundational idea that reading means making meaning
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Understanding that reading means making meaning is the English-domain grounding of the universal habit of noticing when you don't understand
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Checking that a text makes sense while reading and self-correcting is the reading-domain form of the universal comprehension-monitoring habit
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Reading with Expression and Accuracy soft
Reading comprehension monitoring builds on earlier fluency skills
- Blending Sounds to Read Words soft
Blending helps attempt unfamiliar words but sight words bypass phonics
- Story Sequence and Central Message hard
Identifying main ideas from multiple paragraphs and summarising builds on the prior skill of discussing sequence of events and how information items are related in shorter texts
- Main Topic of Informational Texts soft
Understanding main topic and key details of informational texts supports discussing how items of information are related
- Reading with Expression and Accuracy soft
Expressive reading supports comprehension of sequence and meaning
- Blending Sounds to Read Words soft
Blending helps attempt unfamiliar words but sight words bypass phonics
- Main Topic of Informational Texts hard
Non-fiction structures build on Y1 informational text main topic
- Main Topic & Key Details hard
Drawing evidence from informational texts requires the ability to identify main ideas across paragraphs
- Main Topic of Informational Texts hard
Multi-paragraph main idea analysis builds on identifying main topic and key details in simpler texts
- Persuasive Writing soft
Evaluating competing explanations (e.g., who built the pyramids?) requires the argument-construction and evidence-weighing skills from English persuasive and analytical writing
- Writing for an audience hard
Writing extended arguments with acknowledged counterclaims and formal style requires the prior ability to produce coherent, organised writing appropriate to the task, purpose, and audience
- Writing Craft Vocabulary hard
Producing coherent writing for task/purpose/audience requires these as precise, understood concepts
- Planning Ideas Before Writing hard
Producing coherent writing matched to task/purpose/audience builds on planning skills; learners must know how to plan before they can match organisation to purpose
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Using talk to explore ideas and speculate requires noticing what you don't yet understand — the comprehension-monitoring habit in a spoken register
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Expressing Feelings with Words soft
Writing about real events draws on the ability to put feelings into words — the SEL skill of expressing emotions verbally before encoding them in written form
- Triggers and Causes of Feelings soft
Expressing feelings in words benefits from understanding triggers
- Naming Basic Emotions soft
Calming strategies benefit from naming the emotion you're trying to manage
- Words for Big Feelings hard
Calming strategies (calm, breathe, settle) rely on knowing this vocabulary to name and apply the techniques
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Informative writing requires knowing 'genre', 'audience', 'purpose', and 'detail' as concepts
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Using talk to explore ideas and speculate requires noticing what you don't yet understand — the comprehension-monitoring habit in a spoken register
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
- Simple Stories with Beginning and Ending hard
Writing about real events builds on narrative writing skills
- Rote counting to 100 soft
Sequencing events in narrative writing draws on the ordinal/sequential thinking developed through counting
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing simple narratives requires 'narrative', 'sequence', 'beginning', 'middle', 'ending' as shared vocabulary
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Using talk to explore ideas and speculate requires noticing what you don't yet understand — the comprehension-monitoring habit in a spoken register
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing for different purposes requires the vocabulary of purpose, genre, recount, and instruction
- Simple Stories with Beginning and Ending hard
Organising paragraphs requires narrative writing ability
- Rote counting to 100 soft
Sequencing events in narrative writing draws on the ordinal/sequential thinking developed through counting
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing simple narratives requires 'narrative', 'sequence', 'beginning', 'middle', 'ending' as shared vocabulary
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Using talk to explore ideas and speculate requires noticing what you don't yet understand — the comprehension-monitoring habit in a spoken register
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Organising into paragraphs requires 'paragraph', 'heading', 'theme', and 'organisation' as named concepts
- Expressing Feelings with Words soft
Writing about real events draws on the ability to put feelings into words — the SEL skill of expressing emotions verbally before encoding them in written form
- Triggers and Causes of Feelings soft
Expressing feelings in words benefits from understanding triggers
- Naming Basic Emotions soft
Calming strategies benefit from naming the emotion you're trying to manage
- Words for Big Feelings hard
Calming strategies (calm, breathe, settle) rely on knowing this vocabulary to name and apply the techniques
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Informative writing requires knowing 'genre', 'audience', 'purpose', and 'detail' as concepts
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Using talk to explore ideas and speculate requires noticing what you don't yet understand — the comprehension-monitoring habit in a spoken register
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
- Simple Stories with Beginning and Ending hard
Writing about real events builds on narrative writing skills
- Rote counting to 100 soft
Sequencing events in narrative writing draws on the ordinal/sequential thinking developed through counting
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing simple narratives requires 'narrative', 'sequence', 'beginning', 'middle', 'ending' as shared vocabulary
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Using talk to explore ideas and speculate requires noticing what you don't yet understand — the comprehension-monitoring habit in a spoken register
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing for different purposes requires the vocabulary of purpose, genre, recount, and instruction
- Simple Stories with Beginning and Ending soft
Experience with narrative writing supports planning narratives
- Rote counting to 100 soft
Sequencing events in narrative writing draws on the ordinal/sequential thinking developed through counting
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing simple narratives requires 'narrative', 'sequence', 'beginning', 'middle', 'ending' as shared vocabulary
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Using talk to explore ideas and speculate requires noticing what you don't yet understand — the comprehension-monitoring habit in a spoken register
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Planning before writing requires 'plan', 'draft', 'compose', 'sequence', and 'key words' as working vocabulary
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Using talk to explore ideas and speculate requires noticing what you don't yet understand — the comprehension-monitoring habit in a spoken register
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
- Organising Writing into Paragraphs soft
Coherent organisation requires facility with paragraphs and structural devices like headings
- Expressing Feelings with Words soft
Writing about real events draws on the ability to put feelings into words — the SEL skill of expressing emotions verbally before encoding them in written form
- Triggers and Causes of Feelings soft
Expressing feelings in words benefits from understanding triggers
- Naming Basic Emotions soft
Calming strategies benefit from naming the emotion you're trying to manage
- Words for Big Feelings hard
Calming strategies (calm, breathe, settle) rely on knowing this vocabulary to name and apply the techniques
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Informative writing requires knowing 'genre', 'audience', 'purpose', and 'detail' as concepts
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Using talk to explore ideas and speculate requires noticing what you don't yet understand — the comprehension-monitoring habit in a spoken register
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
- Simple Stories with Beginning and Ending hard
Writing about real events builds on narrative writing skills
- Rote counting to 100 soft
Sequencing events in narrative writing draws on the ordinal/sequential thinking developed through counting
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing simple narratives requires 'narrative', 'sequence', 'beginning', 'middle', 'ending' as shared vocabulary
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Using talk to explore ideas and speculate requires noticing what you don't yet understand — the comprehension-monitoring habit in a spoken register
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing for different purposes requires the vocabulary of purpose, genre, recount, and instruction
- Simple Stories with Beginning and Ending hard
Organising paragraphs requires narrative writing ability
- Rote counting to 100 soft
Sequencing events in narrative writing draws on the ordinal/sequential thinking developed through counting
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing simple narratives requires 'narrative', 'sequence', 'beginning', 'middle', 'ending' as shared vocabulary
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Using talk to explore ideas and speculate requires noticing what you don't yet understand — the comprehension-monitoring habit in a spoken register
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Organising into paragraphs requires 'paragraph', 'heading', 'theme', and 'organisation' as named concepts
- Evaluating Arguments in Non-Fiction soft
Writing arguments benefits from reading skill of evaluating arguments and claims
- Using and Evaluating Textual Evidence hard
Assessing whether evidence is sufficient requires textual evidence skills
- Justifying Views About Texts hard
Citing textual evidence extends KS2 providing reasoned justifications with evidence
- Understanding fractions (age 9+) soft
Cross-subject: providing reasoned justifications for views about texts benefits from constructing logical multi-step arguments in maths
- Types of angles (age 8+) hard
Measuring and drawing angles with a protractor requires knowing how to mark and label angles using standard notation
- Right Angles & Turns hard
Identifying right angles and greater/less than right angle is prerequisite to naming acute/obtuse
- Types of angles (age 8+) soft
Identifying right angles and turns is supported by the convention of marking right angles with a small square
- Types of angles (age 8+) hard
Finding unknown angles using equations requires reading angle diagrams and interpreting arc marks and notation
- Types of angles (age 8+) hard
Angle sum rules (360° at a point, 180° on a line) are applied through reading angle diagrams with correct notation
- Right Angles & Turns hard
Identifying right angles and greater/less than right angle is prerequisite to naming acute/obtuse
- Types of angles (age 8+) soft
Identifying right angles and turns is supported by the convention of marking right angles with a small square
- Justifying mathematical reasoning (age 8+) hard
Age 8-9 constructing arguments is prerequisite to age 9-10 level
- Equivalent fractions (age 8+) soft
Generating/explaining equivalent fractions exercises justification skills
- Equivalent fractions on a number line hard
Must understand equivalence before generating equivalent fractions
- Equivalent fractions hard
Diagram-based equivalent fractions is prerequisite to formal equivalence understanding
- Reading +, −, and = symbols soft
Writing fraction sentences (1/2 of 6 = 3) requires understanding the = sign
- Fractions of amounts hard
Writing fractions and recognising equivalence requires knowing what the fractions mean
- Fraction Notation hard
Writing fractions and recognising equivalence requires 'equivalent fraction' vocabulary
- Fractions of amounts hard
Recognising fractions of shapes/quantities is prerequisite to formal unit fraction understanding
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Working with 1/4, 2/4, 3/4 extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- Fraction Notation hard
Writing fractions like 1/3 and 3/4 requires knowing numerator and denominator
- Fraction Notation hard
Understanding a/b as a parts of 1/b requires numerator, denominator, and unit fraction vocabulary
- Splitting shapes into equal parts (age 7+) hard
Partition into equal shares is prerequisite to understanding unit fractions
- Decomposing a shape into more equal shares hard
Understanding equal shares of different shapes requires concept of more shares = smaller
- Fractions on a number line (age 8+) hard
Equivalent fractions as the same point on a number line directly uses the fraction number-line representation
- Fractions on a number line hard
Prior number-line fraction experience feeds into formal unit-fraction placement
- Fractions of amounts hard
Recognising fractions of shapes/quantities is prerequisite to formal unit fraction understanding
- Fraction Notation hard
Understanding a/b as a parts of 1/b requires numerator, denominator, and unit fraction vocabulary
- Splitting shapes into equal parts (age 7+) hard
Partition into equal shares is prerequisite to understanding unit fractions
- Comparing fractions (age 8+) soft
Fraction comparison requires constructing arguments about relative size
- Comparing fractions hard
Same-denominator comparison experience is prerequisite to same-numerator comparison
- Decomposing a shape into more equal shares soft
More shares = smaller helps understand why 1/5 < 1/3
- Halves & Quarters of Shapes hard
Comparing share sizes requires experience partitioning into halves and quarters
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Partitioning into fourths/quarters extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- Fractions on a number line hard
Comparing fractions requires understanding them as numbers on a line
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Working with 1/4, 2/4, 3/4 extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- Fraction Notation hard
Writing fractions like 1/3 and 3/4 requires knowing numerator and denominator
- Fractions of a whole hard
Must understand unit fraction size reasoning for same-numerator comparison
- Fractions of amounts hard
Recognising fractions of shapes/quantities is prerequisite to formal unit fraction understanding
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Working with 1/4, 2/4, 3/4 extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- What Is a Half? hard
Understanding quarters extends from understanding halves — both are equal parts but quarters requires dividing into 4
- Division as equal sharing hard
Finding a half requires equal sharing into 2 groups — a division concept
- Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
Division as equal sharing/grouping requires understanding subtraction as taking away/separating
- Fraction Notation hard
Writing fractions like 1/3 and 3/4 requires knowing numerator and denominator
- Fraction Notation hard
Understanding a/b as a parts of 1/b requires numerator, denominator, and unit fraction vocabulary
- Splitting shapes into equal parts (age 7+) hard
Partition into equal shares is prerequisite to understanding unit fractions
- Decomposing a shape into more equal shares hard
Understanding equal shares of different shapes requires concept of more shares = smaller
- Halves & Quarters of Shapes hard
Comparing share sizes requires experience partitioning into halves and quarters
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Partitioning into fourths/quarters extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- Justifying mathematical reasoning hard
Age 7-8 explaining/justifying is prerequisite to age 8-9 level
- Describing Aloud soft
Cross-subject: constructing and following multi-step mathematical arguments requires the ability to express thoughts and give well-structured explanations orally
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Using talk to explore ideas and speculate requires noticing what you don't yet understand — the comprehension-monitoring habit in a spoken register
- Teaching It Back soft
Constructing multi-step mathematical arguments and identifying errors in reasoning is the maths form of the universal self-explanation habit
- Explaining Mathematical Reasoning soft
The universal self-explanation habit (LtL 7-8) builds on the maths-specific practice of explaining reasoning when prompted (MT 6-7)
- Showing Your Working hard
Age 6-7 explaining with diagrams/logic builds on age 5-6 showing and telling with objects
- Numbers up to 10 into pairs soft
Explaining part-part-whole decompositions exercises showing and telling
- Number bonds to 9 soft
Explaining how to find number bonds to 10 exercises showing thinking with objects
- Listening and responding soft
Explaining mathematical reasoning orally requires basic listening and responding skills
- What the equals sign means soft
Determining whether equations are true/false exercises evaluating and justifying
- Reading +, −, and = symbols hard
Deep understanding of = requires already being able to read and write number sentences
- Addition as combining or putting together two hard
Understanding commutativity of addition requires understanding addition
- Thinking Before Starting hard
Explaining in your own words requires connecting new learning to existing knowledge already held in mind
- Persisting When It's Hard hard
Activating prior knowledge requires the foundational habit of persistent engagement with new material
- Showing Your Working hard
Age 6-7 explaining with diagrams/logic builds on age 5-6 showing and telling with objects
- Numbers up to 10 into pairs soft
Explaining part-part-whole decompositions exercises showing and telling
- Addition as combining or putting together two hard
Decomposing numbers into pairs requires understanding addition as combining
- Number bonds to 9 soft
Explaining how to find number bonds to 10 exercises showing thinking with objects
- Numbers up to 10 into pairs hard
Making 10 is a specific application of decomposing numbers into pairs
- Listening and responding soft
Explaining mathematical reasoning orally requires basic listening and responding skills
- What the equals sign means soft
Determining whether equations are true/false exercises evaluating and justifying
- Reading +, −, and = symbols hard
Deep understanding of = requires already being able to read and write number sentences
- Reading and writing numbers to 20 hard
Writing number sentences requires reading and writing numerals
- Addition as combining or putting together two hard
Reading/writing the + symbol requires understanding what addition means
- Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
Reading/writing the − symbol requires understanding what subtraction means
- Addition as combining or putting together two hard
Understanding commutativity of addition requires understanding addition
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
- Adding and subtracting (age 7+) soft
Explaining columnar methods exercises identifying and justifying steps
- Fluent adding and subtracting within 100 hard
Columnar methods require fluent within-100 addition/subtraction
- Addition and subtraction within 20 hard
Adding within 100 extends within-20 strategies to larger numbers
- The two digits of a two-digit number hard
Adding within 100 using PV requires understanding tens and ones
- Addition and subtraction within 20 hard
Fluency within 20 requires prior strategy-based adding/subtracting within 20
- Addition and subtraction within 1000 hard
Formal columnar methods build on conceptual understanding of composing/decomposing
- The three digits of a three-digit number hard
Three-digit operations require three-digit place-value understanding
- Fluent adding and subtracting within 100 hard
Adding/subtracting within 1000 extends within-100 skills
- Addition and subtraction strategies (age 7+) soft
Explaining why strategies work exercises constructing arguments
- The three digits of a three-digit number hard
Explanations require place-value language and understanding
- The two digits of a two-digit number hard
Must understand two-digit place value before extending to hundreds
- A Ten Is Ten Ones hard
Understanding tens and ones place value requires the concept of 10 as a bundle
- The teen numbers hard
General two-digit place value extends from understanding teen number composition
- Fluent adding and subtracting within 100 hard
Must be able to use strategies before explaining why they work
- Addition and subtraction within 20 hard
Adding within 100 extends within-20 strategies to larger numbers
- The two digits of a two-digit number hard
Adding within 100 using PV requires understanding tens and ones
- Addition and subtraction within 20 hard
Fluency within 20 requires prior strategy-based adding/subtracting within 20
- Understanding Why soft
Critiquing the reasoning of others in maths requires the elaborative-interrogation habit of asking why things work or fail
- Teaching It Back hard
Asking 'why does this work?' requires first being able to explain what you know — interrogation builds on explanation
- Explaining Mathematical Reasoning soft
The universal self-explanation habit (LtL 7-8) builds on the maths-specific practice of explaining reasoning when prompted (MT 6-7)
- Showing Your Working hard
Age 6-7 explaining with diagrams/logic builds on age 5-6 showing and telling with objects
- Numbers up to 10 into pairs soft
Explaining part-part-whole decompositions exercises showing and telling
- Number bonds to 9 soft
Explaining how to find number bonds to 10 exercises showing thinking with objects
- Listening and responding soft
Explaining mathematical reasoning orally requires basic listening and responding skills
- What the equals sign means soft
Determining whether equations are true/false exercises evaluating and justifying
- Reading +, −, and = symbols hard
Deep understanding of = requires already being able to read and write number sentences
- Addition as combining or putting together two hard
Understanding commutativity of addition requires understanding addition
- Thinking Before Starting hard
Explaining in your own words requires connecting new learning to existing knowledge already held in mind
- Persisting When It's Hard hard
Activating prior knowledge requires the foundational habit of persistent engagement with new material
- Comparing fractions (age 9+) soft
Comparing fractions with different denominators requires constructing logical arguments
- Equivalent fractions (age 9+) hard
Must generate equivalent fractions before using common denominators to compare
- Equivalent fractions on a number line hard
Understanding equivalence conceptually is prerequisite to explaining algebraically
- Equivalent fractions hard
Diagram-based equivalent fractions is prerequisite to formal equivalence understanding
- Reading +, −, and = symbols soft
Writing fraction sentences (1/2 of 6 = 3) requires understanding the = sign
- Fractions of amounts hard
Writing fractions and recognising equivalence requires knowing what the fractions mean
- Fraction Notation hard
Writing fractions and recognising equivalence requires 'equivalent fraction' vocabulary
- Fractions of amounts hard
Recognising fractions of shapes/quantities is prerequisite to formal unit fraction understanding
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Working with 1/4, 2/4, 3/4 extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- Fraction Notation hard
Writing fractions like 1/3 and 3/4 requires knowing numerator and denominator
- Fraction Notation hard
Understanding a/b as a parts of 1/b requires numerator, denominator, and unit fraction vocabulary
- Splitting shapes into equal parts (age 7+) hard
Partition into equal shares is prerequisite to understanding unit fractions
- Decomposing a shape into more equal shares hard
Understanding equal shares of different shapes requires concept of more shares = smaller
- Fractions on a number line (age 8+) hard
Equivalent fractions as the same point on a number line directly uses the fraction number-line representation
- Fractions on a number line hard
Prior number-line fraction experience feeds into formal unit-fraction placement
- Fractions of amounts hard
Recognising fractions of shapes/quantities is prerequisite to formal unit fraction understanding
- Fraction Notation hard
Understanding a/b as a parts of 1/b requires numerator, denominator, and unit fraction vocabulary
- Splitting shapes into equal parts (age 7+) hard
Partition into equal shares is prerequisite to understanding unit fractions
- Equivalent fractions (age 8+) hard
Generating equivalent fractions with visual models is prerequisite to algebraic explanation of equivalence
- Equivalent fractions on a number line hard
Must understand equivalence before generating equivalent fractions
- Equivalent fractions hard
Diagram-based equivalent fractions is prerequisite to formal equivalence understanding
- Fractions of amounts hard
Recognising fractions of shapes/quantities is prerequisite to formal unit fraction understanding
- Fraction Notation hard
Understanding a/b as a parts of 1/b requires numerator, denominator, and unit fraction vocabulary
- Splitting shapes into equal parts (age 7+) hard
Partition into equal shares is prerequisite to understanding unit fractions
- Fractions on a number line (age 8+) hard
Equivalent fractions as the same point on a number line directly uses the fraction number-line representation
- Fractions on a number line hard
Prior number-line fraction experience feeds into formal unit-fraction placement
- Comparing fractions (age 8+) hard
Same-numerator/denom comparison is prerequisite to different-denom comparison
- Comparing fractions hard
Same-denominator comparison experience is prerequisite to same-numerator comparison
- Decomposing a shape into more equal shares soft
More shares = smaller helps understand why 1/5 < 1/3
- Halves & Quarters of Shapes hard
Comparing share sizes requires experience partitioning into halves and quarters
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Partitioning into fourths/quarters extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- Fractions on a number line hard
Comparing fractions requires understanding them as numbers on a line
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Working with 1/4, 2/4, 3/4 extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- Fraction Notation hard
Writing fractions like 1/3 and 3/4 requires knowing numerator and denominator
- Fractions of a whole hard
Must understand unit fraction size reasoning for same-numerator comparison
- Fractions of amounts hard
Recognising fractions of shapes/quantities is prerequisite to formal unit fraction understanding
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Working with 1/4, 2/4, 3/4 extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- What Is a Half? hard
Understanding quarters extends from understanding halves — both are equal parts but quarters requires dividing into 4
- Division as equal sharing hard
Finding a half requires equal sharing into 2 groups — a division concept
- Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
Division as equal sharing/grouping requires understanding subtraction as taking away/separating
- Fraction Notation hard
Writing fractions like 1/3 and 3/4 requires knowing numerator and denominator
- Fraction Notation hard
Understanding a/b as a parts of 1/b requires numerator, denominator, and unit fraction vocabulary
- Splitting shapes into equal parts (age 7+) hard
Partition into equal shares is prerequisite to understanding unit fractions
- Decomposing a shape into more equal shares hard
Understanding equal shares of different shapes requires concept of more shares = smaller
- Halves & Quarters of Shapes hard
Comparing share sizes requires experience partitioning into halves and quarters
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Partitioning into fourths/quarters extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- Learning from Mistakes soft
Critiquing others' mathematical reasoning and explaining errors applies the universal error-analysis habit to peer arguments
- Checking Your Own Work soft
Investigating why something was wrong grows from the earlier habit of checking whether an answer seems right
- Trying a New Approach hard
Error analysis requires the habit of trying different approaches — you need to have tried something before you can analyse what went wrong
- Feeling of not understanding hard
Strategy switching is triggered by noticing the current approach isn't working — requires comprehension monitoring
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Planning a Task hard
Switching strategy requires first having made a plan — you can only switch away from something you chose deliberately
- Checking Your Own Work hard
Planning before a task grows from the habit of checking back after finishing — both are self-regulatory bookends
- Inferring Characters' Feelings and Motives hard
Justified views requires drawing inferences with evidence
- Predicting what happens next soft
Drawing inferences about characters' feelings and justifying them with evidence is enriched by prior experience predicting what might happen next — both require reading ahead of the literal text
- Reading between the lines hard
Inferring characters' feelings/motives with evidence builds on identifying key details and making simple inferences
- Self-Correcting While Reading soft
Inferring and justifying inferences with text evidence requires the metacognitive habit of checking that the text makes sense as you read — a reader who doesn't self-monitor will miss the cues on which inference depends
- Monitoring Comprehension soft
Self-correcting while reading requires the awareness that decoding correctly is not the same as understanding
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Noticing the decoding/understanding gap is the English-specific form of the universal comprehension-monitoring habit
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Reading for Meaning hard
Noticing the gap between decoding and understanding requires first having the foundational idea that reading means making meaning
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Understanding that reading means making meaning is the English-domain grounding of the universal habit of noticing when you don't understand
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Checking that a text makes sense while reading and self-correcting is the reading-domain form of the universal comprehension-monitoring habit
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Reading with Expression and Accuracy soft
Reading comprehension monitoring builds on earlier fluency skills
- Blending Sounds to Read Words soft
Blending helps attempt unfamiliar words but sight words bypass phonics
- Story Sequence and Central Message soft
Drawing inferences about motivations is enriched by the prior ability to understand and discuss the sequence of events and connections between them — inference relies on understanding what happened and in what order
- Main Topic of Informational Texts soft
Understanding main topic and key details of informational texts supports discussing how items of information are related
- Reading with Expression and Accuracy soft
Expressive reading supports comprehension of sequence and meaning
- Blending Sounds to Read Words soft
Blending helps attempt unfamiliar words but sight words bypass phonics
- Domain Vocabulary Across Subject Areas soft
Drawing inferences from complex texts requires academic vocabulary for reasoning about evidence and argument
- Discussing and Questioning New Words hard
Academic and domain-specific vocabulary acquisition builds on the habit of discussing word meanings and linking new vocabulary to known words
- Defining Words soft
Defining academic words requires the ability to define words by category and attribute
- How Many in Total? soft
Sorting and categorising objects uses the same counting/cardinality skills from maths
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Inferring Characters' Feelings and Motives hard
Evidence-based inference builds on KS2 drawing inferences from texts
- Predicting what happens next soft
Drawing inferences about characters' feelings and justifying them with evidence is enriched by prior experience predicting what might happen next — both require reading ahead of the literal text
- Reading between the lines hard
Inferring characters' feelings/motives with evidence builds on identifying key details and making simple inferences
- Self-Correcting While Reading soft
Inferring and justifying inferences with text evidence requires the metacognitive habit of checking that the text makes sense as you read — a reader who doesn't self-monitor will miss the cues on which inference depends
- Monitoring Comprehension soft
Self-correcting while reading requires the awareness that decoding correctly is not the same as understanding
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Noticing the decoding/understanding gap is the English-specific form of the universal comprehension-monitoring habit
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Reading for Meaning hard
Noticing the gap between decoding and understanding requires first having the foundational idea that reading means making meaning
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Understanding that reading means making meaning is the English-domain grounding of the universal habit of noticing when you don't understand
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Checking that a text makes sense while reading and self-correcting is the reading-domain form of the universal comprehension-monitoring habit
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Reading with Expression and Accuracy soft
Reading comprehension monitoring builds on earlier fluency skills
- Blending Sounds to Read Words soft
Blending helps attempt unfamiliar words but sight words bypass phonics
- Story Sequence and Central Message soft
Drawing inferences about motivations is enriched by the prior ability to understand and discuss the sequence of events and connections between them — inference relies on understanding what happened and in what order
- Main Topic of Informational Texts soft
Understanding main topic and key details of informational texts supports discussing how items of information are related
- Reading with Expression and Accuracy soft
Expressive reading supports comprehension of sequence and meaning
- Blending Sounds to Read Words soft
Blending helps attempt unfamiliar words but sight words bypass phonics
- Domain Vocabulary Across Subject Areas soft
Drawing inferences from complex texts requires academic vocabulary for reasoning about evidence and argument
- Discussing and Questioning New Words hard
Academic and domain-specific vocabulary acquisition builds on the habit of discussing word meanings and linking new vocabulary to known words
- Defining Words soft
Defining academic words requires the ability to define words by category and attribute
- How Many in Total? soft
Sorting and categorising objects uses the same counting/cardinality skills from maths
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Purpose, audience, and context hard
Evaluating claims requires understanding purpose, audience, and context
- Text Features & Presentation hard
Understanding context requires recognising how language choices serve different purposes
- Expressive and Sensory Language hard
Identifying language contribution requires literary language understanding
- Listening to Texts Read Aloud hard
Recognising literary language requires listening comprehension of stories/poetry
- How Many in Total? soft
Sorting and categorising objects uses the same counting/cardinality skills from maths
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Non-Fiction Text Features soft
Non-fiction structures knowledge supports analysing text presentation
- Main Topic of Informational Texts hard
Non-fiction structures build on Y1 informational text main topic
- Book Features and Author's Reasons hard
Distinguishing own POV from author's extends identifying author's reasons/supporting points
- Book Features and Author's Reasons hard
Distinguishing own POV from author's extends identifying author's reasons/supporting points
- Justifying Views About Texts hard
Supporting claims with evidence extends KS2 providing reasoned justifications
- Understanding fractions (age 9+) soft
Cross-subject: providing reasoned justifications for views about texts benefits from constructing logical multi-step arguments in maths
- Types of angles (age 8+) hard
Measuring and drawing angles with a protractor requires knowing how to mark and label angles using standard notation
- Right Angles & Turns hard
Identifying right angles and greater/less than right angle is prerequisite to naming acute/obtuse
- 2-D shapes (age 6+) soft
Understanding angles as shape properties requires knowing basic shape properties
- Position, direction, and movement hard
Recognising angles as turns extends Y2 work on quarter/half/three-quarter turns
- Types of angles (age 8+) soft
Identifying right angles and turns is supported by the convention of marking right angles with a small square
- Positional Language hard
Position/direction vocabulary with right angles extends basic positional language
- Turns & Directions hard
Right-angle turns (clockwise/anti-clockwise) build directly on whole/half/quarter turns from Year 1
- 2-D shapes (age 6+) soft
Understanding angles as shape properties requires knowing basic shape properties
- Angles in triangles (age 6+) soft
Understanding defining attributes supports describing shape properties formally
- 2-D shapes hard
Describing properties of 2-D shapes (sides, symmetry) requires knowing the shapes first
- 3-D shapes (age 5+) hard
Formal property description extends informal analysis of sides and vertices
- Position, direction, and movement hard
Recognising angles as turns extends Y2 work on quarter/half/three-quarter turns
- Positional Language hard
Position/direction vocabulary with right angles extends basic positional language
- Turns & Directions hard
Right-angle turns (clockwise/anti-clockwise) build directly on whole/half/quarter turns from Year 1
- Types of angles (age 8+) soft
Identifying right angles and turns is supported by the convention of marking right angles with a small square
- Positional Language hard
Position/direction vocabulary with right angles extends basic positional language
- Turns & Directions hard
Right-angle turns (clockwise/anti-clockwise) build directly on whole/half/quarter turns from Year 1
- What Is a Half? soft
Understanding half and quarter turns benefits from the concept of halves and quarters
- Types of angles (age 8+) hard
Finding unknown angles using equations requires reading angle diagrams and interpreting arc marks and notation
- Types of angles (age 8+) hard
Angle sum rules (360° at a point, 180° on a line) are applied through reading angle diagrams with correct notation
- Right Angles & Turns hard
Identifying right angles and greater/less than right angle is prerequisite to naming acute/obtuse
- 2-D shapes (age 6+) soft
Understanding angles as shape properties requires knowing basic shape properties
- Position, direction, and movement hard
Recognising angles as turns extends Y2 work on quarter/half/three-quarter turns
- Types of angles (age 8+) soft
Identifying right angles and turns is supported by the convention of marking right angles with a small square
- Positional Language hard
Position/direction vocabulary with right angles extends basic positional language
- Turns & Directions hard
Right-angle turns (clockwise/anti-clockwise) build directly on whole/half/quarter turns from Year 1
- 2-D shapes (age 6+) soft
Understanding angles as shape properties requires knowing basic shape properties
- Angles in triangles (age 6+) soft
Understanding defining attributes supports describing shape properties formally
- 2-D shapes hard
Describing properties of 2-D shapes (sides, symmetry) requires knowing the shapes first
- 3-D shapes (age 5+) hard
Formal property description extends informal analysis of sides and vertices
- Position, direction, and movement hard
Recognising angles as turns extends Y2 work on quarter/half/three-quarter turns
- Positional Language hard
Position/direction vocabulary with right angles extends basic positional language
- Turns & Directions hard
Right-angle turns (clockwise/anti-clockwise) build directly on whole/half/quarter turns from Year 1
- Types of angles (age 8+) soft
Identifying right angles and turns is supported by the convention of marking right angles with a small square
- Positional Language hard
Position/direction vocabulary with right angles extends basic positional language
- Turns & Directions hard
Right-angle turns (clockwise/anti-clockwise) build directly on whole/half/quarter turns from Year 1
- What Is a Half? soft
Understanding half and quarter turns benefits from the concept of halves and quarters
- Justifying mathematical reasoning (age 8+) hard
Age 8-9 constructing arguments is prerequisite to age 9-10 level
- Equivalent fractions (age 8+) soft
Generating/explaining equivalent fractions exercises justification skills
- Equivalent fractions on a number line hard
Must understand equivalence before generating equivalent fractions
- Equivalent fractions hard
Diagram-based equivalent fractions is prerequisite to formal equivalence understanding
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Working with 1/4, 2/4, 3/4 extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- What Is a Half? hard
Understanding quarters extends from understanding halves — both are equal parts but quarters requires dividing into 4
- Division as equal sharing hard
Finding a half requires equal sharing into 2 groups — a division concept
- Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
Division as equal sharing/grouping requires understanding subtraction as taking away/separating
- Fraction Notation hard
Writing fractions like 1/3 and 3/4 requires knowing numerator and denominator
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Working with 1/4, 2/4, 3/4 extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- Fraction Notation hard
Writing fractions like 1/3 and 3/4 requires knowing numerator and denominator
- Reading +, −, and = symbols soft
Writing fraction sentences (1/2 of 6 = 3) requires understanding the = sign
- Reading and writing numbers to 20 hard
Writing number sentences requires reading and writing numerals
- How Many in Total? hard
Reading/writing numerals 0–20 requires understanding that numerals represent quantities (cardinality)
- Writing digits 0-9 hard
Writing numerals requires the motor skill of forming digits 0-9 (taught in English handwriting)
- Addition as combining or putting together two hard
Reading/writing the + symbol requires understanding what addition means
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
- Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
Reading/writing the − symbol requires understanding what subtraction means
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding subtraction as taking away requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
- Fractions of amounts hard
Writing fractions and recognising equivalence requires knowing what the fractions mean
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Working with 1/4, 2/4, 3/4 extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- What Is a Half? hard
Understanding quarters extends from understanding halves — both are equal parts but quarters requires dividing into 4
- Division as equal sharing hard
Finding a half requires equal sharing into 2 groups — a division concept
- Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
Division as equal sharing/grouping requires understanding subtraction as taking away/separating
- Fraction Notation hard
Writing fractions like 1/3 and 3/4 requires knowing numerator and denominator
- Fraction Notation hard
Writing fractions and recognising equivalence requires 'equivalent fraction' vocabulary
- Fractions of amounts hard
Recognising fractions of shapes/quantities is prerequisite to formal unit fraction understanding
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Working with 1/4, 2/4, 3/4 extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- What Is a Half? hard
Understanding quarters extends from understanding halves — both are equal parts but quarters requires dividing into 4
- Division as equal sharing hard
Finding a half requires equal sharing into 2 groups — a division concept
- Division as equal sharing hard
Finding a half requires equal sharing into 2 groups — a division concept
- Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
Division as equal sharing/grouping requires understanding subtraction as taking away/separating
- Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
Division as equal sharing/grouping requires understanding subtraction as taking away/separating
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding subtraction as taking away requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
- Fraction Notation hard
Writing fractions like 1/3 and 3/4 requires knowing numerator and denominator
- Fraction Notation hard
Understanding a/b as a parts of 1/b requires numerator, denominator, and unit fraction vocabulary
- Splitting shapes into equal parts (age 7+) hard
Partition into equal shares is prerequisite to understanding unit fractions
- Decomposing a shape into more equal shares hard
Understanding equal shares of different shapes requires concept of more shares = smaller
- Halves & Quarters of Shapes hard
Comparing share sizes requires experience partitioning into halves and quarters
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Partitioning into fourths/quarters extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Partitioning into fourths/quarters extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- What Is a Half? hard
Understanding quarters extends from understanding halves — both are equal parts but quarters requires dividing into 4
- Division as equal sharing hard
Finding a half requires equal sharing into 2 groups — a division concept
- Fractions on a number line (age 8+) hard
Equivalent fractions as the same point on a number line directly uses the fraction number-line representation
- Fractions on a number line hard
Prior number-line fraction experience feeds into formal unit-fraction placement
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Working with 1/4, 2/4, 3/4 extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- What Is a Half? hard
Understanding quarters extends from understanding halves — both are equal parts but quarters requires dividing into 4
- Division as equal sharing hard
Finding a half requires equal sharing into 2 groups — a division concept
- Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
Division as equal sharing/grouping requires understanding subtraction as taking away/separating
- Fraction Notation hard
Writing fractions like 1/3 and 3/4 requires knowing numerator and denominator
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Working with 1/4, 2/4, 3/4 extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- Fraction Notation hard
Writing fractions like 1/3 and 3/4 requires knowing numerator and denominator
- Fractions of amounts hard
Recognising fractions of shapes/quantities is prerequisite to formal unit fraction understanding
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Working with 1/4, 2/4, 3/4 extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- What Is a Half? hard
Understanding quarters extends from understanding halves — both are equal parts but quarters requires dividing into 4
- Division as equal sharing hard
Finding a half requires equal sharing into 2 groups — a division concept
- Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
Division as equal sharing/grouping requires understanding subtraction as taking away/separating
- Fraction Notation hard
Writing fractions like 1/3 and 3/4 requires knowing numerator and denominator
- Fraction Notation hard
Understanding a/b as a parts of 1/b requires numerator, denominator, and unit fraction vocabulary
- Splitting shapes into equal parts (age 7+) hard
Partition into equal shares is prerequisite to understanding unit fractions
- Decomposing a shape into more equal shares hard
Understanding equal shares of different shapes requires concept of more shares = smaller
- Halves & Quarters of Shapes hard
Comparing share sizes requires experience partitioning into halves and quarters
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Partitioning into fourths/quarters extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- Comparing fractions (age 8+) soft
Fraction comparison requires constructing arguments about relative size
- Comparing fractions hard
Same-denominator comparison experience is prerequisite to same-numerator comparison
- Decomposing a shape into more equal shares soft
More shares = smaller helps understand why 1/5 < 1/3
- Halves & Quarters of Shapes hard
Comparing share sizes requires experience partitioning into halves and quarters
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Partitioning into fourths/quarters extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- What Is a Half? hard
Understanding quarters extends from understanding halves — both are equal parts but quarters requires dividing into 4
- Division as equal sharing hard
Finding a half requires equal sharing into 2 groups — a division concept
- Division as equal sharing hard
Finding a half requires equal sharing into 2 groups — a division concept
- Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
Division as equal sharing/grouping requires understanding subtraction as taking away/separating
- Fractions on a number line hard
Comparing fractions requires understanding them as numbers on a line
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Working with 1/4, 2/4, 3/4 extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- What Is a Half? hard
Understanding quarters extends from understanding halves — both are equal parts but quarters requires dividing into 4
- Division as equal sharing hard
Finding a half requires equal sharing into 2 groups — a division concept
- Division as equal sharing hard
Finding a half requires equal sharing into 2 groups — a division concept
- Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
Division as equal sharing/grouping requires understanding subtraction as taking away/separating
- Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
Division as equal sharing/grouping requires understanding subtraction as taking away/separating
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding subtraction as taking away requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
- Fraction Notation hard
Writing fractions like 1/3 and 3/4 requires knowing numerator and denominator
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Working with 1/4, 2/4, 3/4 extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- What Is a Half? hard
Understanding quarters extends from understanding halves — both are equal parts but quarters requires dividing into 4
- Division as equal sharing hard
Finding a half requires equal sharing into 2 groups — a division concept
- Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
Division as equal sharing/grouping requires understanding subtraction as taking away/separating
- Fraction Notation hard
Writing fractions like 1/3 and 3/4 requires knowing numerator and denominator
- Fractions of a whole hard
Must understand unit fraction size reasoning for same-numerator comparison
- Fractions of amounts hard
Recognising fractions of shapes/quantities is prerequisite to formal unit fraction understanding
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Working with 1/4, 2/4, 3/4 extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- What Is a Half? hard
Understanding quarters extends from understanding halves — both are equal parts but quarters requires dividing into 4
- Division as equal sharing hard
Finding a half requires equal sharing into 2 groups — a division concept
- Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
Division as equal sharing/grouping requires understanding subtraction as taking away/separating
- Division as equal sharing hard
Finding a half requires equal sharing into 2 groups — a division concept
- Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
Division as equal sharing/grouping requires understanding subtraction as taking away/separating
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding subtraction as taking away requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
- Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
Division as equal sharing/grouping requires understanding subtraction as taking away/separating
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding subtraction as taking away requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Fraction Notation hard
Writing fractions like 1/3 and 3/4 requires knowing numerator and denominator
- Fraction Notation hard
Understanding a/b as a parts of 1/b requires numerator, denominator, and unit fraction vocabulary
- Splitting shapes into equal parts (age 7+) hard
Partition into equal shares is prerequisite to understanding unit fractions
- Decomposing a shape into more equal shares hard
Understanding equal shares of different shapes requires concept of more shares = smaller
- Halves & Quarters of Shapes hard
Comparing share sizes requires experience partitioning into halves and quarters
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Partitioning into fourths/quarters extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- What Is a Half? hard
Understanding quarters extends from understanding halves — both are equal parts but quarters requires dividing into 4
- Division as equal sharing hard
Finding a half requires equal sharing into 2 groups — a division concept
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Partitioning into fourths/quarters extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- What Is a Half? hard
Understanding quarters extends from understanding halves — both are equal parts but quarters requires dividing into 4
- Division as equal sharing hard
Finding a half requires equal sharing into 2 groups — a division concept
- Division as equal sharing hard
Finding a half requires equal sharing into 2 groups — a division concept
- Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
Division as equal sharing/grouping requires understanding subtraction as taking away/separating
- Justifying mathematical reasoning hard
Age 7-8 explaining/justifying is prerequisite to age 8-9 level
- Describing Aloud soft
Cross-subject: constructing and following multi-step mathematical arguments requires the ability to express thoughts and give well-structured explanations orally
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Using talk to explore ideas and speculate requires noticing what you don't yet understand — the comprehension-monitoring habit in a spoken register
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Teaching It Back soft
Constructing multi-step mathematical arguments and identifying errors in reasoning is the maths form of the universal self-explanation habit
- Explaining Mathematical Reasoning soft
The universal self-explanation habit (LtL 7-8) builds on the maths-specific practice of explaining reasoning when prompted (MT 6-7)
- Showing Your Working hard
Age 6-7 explaining with diagrams/logic builds on age 5-6 showing and telling with objects
- Numbers up to 10 into pairs soft
Explaining part-part-whole decompositions exercises showing and telling
- Addition as combining or putting together two hard
Decomposing numbers into pairs requires understanding addition as combining
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
- Number bonds to 9 soft
Explaining how to find number bonds to 10 exercises showing thinking with objects
- Numbers up to 10 into pairs hard
Making 10 is a specific application of decomposing numbers into pairs
- Addition as combining or putting together two hard
Decomposing numbers into pairs requires understanding addition as combining
- Listening and responding soft
Explaining mathematical reasoning orally requires basic listening and responding skills
- What the equals sign means soft
Determining whether equations are true/false exercises evaluating and justifying
- Reading +, −, and = symbols hard
Deep understanding of = requires already being able to read and write number sentences
- Reading and writing numbers to 20 hard
Writing number sentences requires reading and writing numerals
- How Many in Total? hard
Reading/writing numerals 0–20 requires understanding that numerals represent quantities (cardinality)
- Writing digits 0-9 hard
Writing numerals requires the motor skill of forming digits 0-9 (taught in English handwriting)
- Addition as combining or putting together two hard
Reading/writing the + symbol requires understanding what addition means
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
- Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
Reading/writing the − symbol requires understanding what subtraction means
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding subtraction as taking away requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
- Addition as combining or putting together two hard
Understanding commutativity of addition requires understanding addition
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Thinking Before Starting hard
Explaining in your own words requires connecting new learning to existing knowledge already held in mind
- Persisting When It's Hard hard
Activating prior knowledge requires the foundational habit of persistent engagement with new material
- Showing Your Working hard
Age 6-7 explaining with diagrams/logic builds on age 5-6 showing and telling with objects
- Numbers up to 10 into pairs soft
Explaining part-part-whole decompositions exercises showing and telling
- Addition as combining or putting together two hard
Decomposing numbers into pairs requires understanding addition as combining
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Number bonds to 9 soft
Explaining how to find number bonds to 10 exercises showing thinking with objects
- Numbers up to 10 into pairs hard
Making 10 is a specific application of decomposing numbers into pairs
- Addition as combining or putting together two hard
Decomposing numbers into pairs requires understanding addition as combining
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
- Listening and responding soft
Explaining mathematical reasoning orally requires basic listening and responding skills
- What the equals sign means soft
Determining whether equations are true/false exercises evaluating and justifying
- Reading +, −, and = symbols hard
Deep understanding of = requires already being able to read and write number sentences
- Reading and writing numbers to 20 hard
Writing number sentences requires reading and writing numerals
- How Many in Total? hard
Reading/writing numerals 0–20 requires understanding that numerals represent quantities (cardinality)
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Writing digits 0-9 hard
Writing numerals requires the motor skill of forming digits 0-9 (taught in English handwriting)
- Addition as combining or putting together two hard
Reading/writing the + symbol requires understanding what addition means
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
Reading/writing the − symbol requires understanding what subtraction means
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding subtraction as taking away requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Addition as combining or putting together two hard
Understanding commutativity of addition requires understanding addition
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Adding and subtracting (age 7+) soft
Explaining columnar methods exercises identifying and justifying steps
- Fluent adding and subtracting within 100 hard
Columnar methods require fluent within-100 addition/subtraction
- Addition and subtraction within 20 hard
Adding within 100 extends within-20 strategies to larger numbers
- Numbers up to 10 into pairs hard
Making 10 is a specific application of decomposing numbers into pairs
- Fluent adding and subtracting within 10 hard
Strategies for within-20 calculation build on fluent within-10 knowledge
- The two digits of a two-digit number hard
Adding within 100 using PV requires understanding tens and ones
- A Ten Is Ten Ones hard
Understanding tens and ones place value requires the concept of 10 as a bundle
- The teen numbers hard
Understanding 10 as a bundle builds on understanding teen numbers as 'a ten and some ones'
- The teen numbers hard
General two-digit place value extends from understanding teen number composition
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding tens-and-ones composition requires cardinality — knowing numbers represent quantities
- Reading and writing numbers to 20 hard
Composing/decomposing teen numbers requires reading and writing those numerals
- Addition and subtraction within 20 hard
Fluency within 20 requires prior strategy-based adding/subtracting within 20
- Numbers up to 10 into pairs hard
Making 10 is a specific application of decomposing numbers into pairs
- Fluent adding and subtracting within 10 hard
Strategies for within-20 calculation build on fluent within-10 knowledge
- Numbers up to 10 into pairs hard
Making 10 is a specific application of decomposing numbers into pairs
- Addition as combining or putting together two hard
Fluency with addition within 5 requires understanding addition as combining
- Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
Fluency with subtraction within 5 requires understanding subtraction as taking away
- Addition and subtraction within 1000 hard
Formal columnar methods build on conceptual understanding of composing/decomposing
- The three digits of a three-digit number hard
Three-digit operations require three-digit place-value understanding
- The teen numbers hard
Understanding 10 as a bundle builds on understanding teen numbers as 'a ten and some ones'
- The two digits of a two-digit number hard
Must understand two-digit place value before extending to hundreds
- A Ten Is Ten Ones hard
Understanding tens and ones place value requires the concept of 10 as a bundle
- The teen numbers hard
General two-digit place value extends from understanding teen number composition
- A Ten Is Ten Ones hard
Understanding tens and ones place value requires the concept of 10 as a bundle
- The teen numbers hard
Understanding 10 as a bundle builds on understanding teen numbers as 'a ten and some ones'
- The teen numbers hard
General two-digit place value extends from understanding teen number composition
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding tens-and-ones composition requires cardinality — knowing numbers represent quantities
- Reading and writing numbers to 20 hard
Composing/decomposing teen numbers requires reading and writing those numerals
- Fluent adding and subtracting within 100 hard
Adding/subtracting within 1000 extends within-100 skills
- Addition and subtraction within 20 hard
Adding within 100 extends within-20 strategies to larger numbers
- Fluent adding and subtracting within 10 hard
Strategies for within-20 calculation build on fluent within-10 knowledge
- The two digits of a two-digit number hard
Adding within 100 using PV requires understanding tens and ones
- A Ten Is Ten Ones hard
Understanding tens and ones place value requires the concept of 10 as a bundle
- The teen numbers hard
General two-digit place value extends from understanding teen number composition
- Addition and subtraction within 20 hard
Fluency within 20 requires prior strategy-based adding/subtracting within 20
- Fluent adding and subtracting within 10 hard
Strategies for within-20 calculation build on fluent within-10 knowledge
- Addition and subtraction strategies (age 7+) soft
Explaining why strategies work exercises constructing arguments
- The three digits of a three-digit number hard
Explanations require place-value language and understanding
- The teen numbers hard
Understanding 10 as a bundle builds on understanding teen numbers as 'a ten and some ones'
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding tens-and-ones composition requires cardinality — knowing numbers represent quantities
- Reading and writing numbers to 20 hard
Composing/decomposing teen numbers requires reading and writing those numerals
- The two digits of a two-digit number hard
Must understand two-digit place value before extending to hundreds
- A Ten Is Ten Ones hard
Understanding tens and ones place value requires the concept of 10 as a bundle
- The teen numbers hard
Understanding 10 as a bundle builds on understanding teen numbers as 'a ten and some ones'
- The teen numbers hard
General two-digit place value extends from understanding teen number composition
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding tens-and-ones composition requires cardinality — knowing numbers represent quantities
- Reading and writing numbers to 20 hard
Composing/decomposing teen numbers requires reading and writing those numerals
- A Ten Is Ten Ones hard
Understanding tens and ones place value requires the concept of 10 as a bundle
- The teen numbers hard
Understanding 10 as a bundle builds on understanding teen numbers as 'a ten and some ones'
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding tens-and-ones composition requires cardinality — knowing numbers represent quantities
- Reading and writing numbers to 20 hard
Composing/decomposing teen numbers requires reading and writing those numerals
- The teen numbers hard
General two-digit place value extends from understanding teen number composition
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding tens-and-ones composition requires cardinality — knowing numbers represent quantities
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Reading and writing numbers to 20 hard
Composing/decomposing teen numbers requires reading and writing those numerals
- How Many in Total? hard
Reading/writing numerals 0–20 requires understanding that numerals represent quantities (cardinality)
- Writing digits 0-9 hard
Writing numerals requires the motor skill of forming digits 0-9 (taught in English handwriting)
- Fluent adding and subtracting within 100 hard
Must be able to use strategies before explaining why they work
- Addition and subtraction within 20 hard
Adding within 100 extends within-20 strategies to larger numbers
- Numbers up to 10 into pairs hard
Making 10 is a specific application of decomposing numbers into pairs
- Fluent adding and subtracting within 10 hard
Strategies for within-20 calculation build on fluent within-10 knowledge
- The two digits of a two-digit number hard
Adding within 100 using PV requires understanding tens and ones
- A Ten Is Ten Ones hard
Understanding tens and ones place value requires the concept of 10 as a bundle
- The teen numbers hard
Understanding 10 as a bundle builds on understanding teen numbers as 'a ten and some ones'
- The teen numbers hard
General two-digit place value extends from understanding teen number composition
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding tens-and-ones composition requires cardinality — knowing numbers represent quantities
- Reading and writing numbers to 20 hard
Composing/decomposing teen numbers requires reading and writing those numerals
- Addition and subtraction within 20 hard
Fluency within 20 requires prior strategy-based adding/subtracting within 20
- Numbers up to 10 into pairs hard
Making 10 is a specific application of decomposing numbers into pairs
- Fluent adding and subtracting within 10 hard
Strategies for within-20 calculation build on fluent within-10 knowledge
- Numbers up to 10 into pairs hard
Making 10 is a specific application of decomposing numbers into pairs
- Addition as combining or putting together two hard
Fluency with addition within 5 requires understanding addition as combining
- Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
Fluency with subtraction within 5 requires understanding subtraction as taking away
- Understanding Why soft
Critiquing the reasoning of others in maths requires the elaborative-interrogation habit of asking why things work or fail
- Teaching It Back hard
Asking 'why does this work?' requires first being able to explain what you know — interrogation builds on explanation
- Explaining Mathematical Reasoning soft
The universal self-explanation habit (LtL 7-8) builds on the maths-specific practice of explaining reasoning when prompted (MT 6-7)
- Showing Your Working hard
Age 6-7 explaining with diagrams/logic builds on age 5-6 showing and telling with objects
- Numbers up to 10 into pairs soft
Explaining part-part-whole decompositions exercises showing and telling
- Addition as combining or putting together two hard
Decomposing numbers into pairs requires understanding addition as combining
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
- Number bonds to 9 soft
Explaining how to find number bonds to 10 exercises showing thinking with objects
- Numbers up to 10 into pairs hard
Making 10 is a specific application of decomposing numbers into pairs
- Addition as combining or putting together two hard
Decomposing numbers into pairs requires understanding addition as combining
- Listening and responding soft
Explaining mathematical reasoning orally requires basic listening and responding skills
- What the equals sign means soft
Determining whether equations are true/false exercises evaluating and justifying
- Reading +, −, and = symbols hard
Deep understanding of = requires already being able to read and write number sentences
- Reading and writing numbers to 20 hard
Writing number sentences requires reading and writing numerals
- How Many in Total? hard
Reading/writing numerals 0–20 requires understanding that numerals represent quantities (cardinality)
- Writing digits 0-9 hard
Writing numerals requires the motor skill of forming digits 0-9 (taught in English handwriting)
- Addition as combining or putting together two hard
Reading/writing the + symbol requires understanding what addition means
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
- Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
Reading/writing the − symbol requires understanding what subtraction means
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding subtraction as taking away requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
- Addition as combining or putting together two hard
Understanding commutativity of addition requires understanding addition
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Thinking Before Starting hard
Explaining in your own words requires connecting new learning to existing knowledge already held in mind
- Persisting When It's Hard hard
Activating prior knowledge requires the foundational habit of persistent engagement with new material
- Comparing fractions (age 9+) soft
Comparing fractions with different denominators requires constructing logical arguments
- Equivalent fractions (age 9+) hard
Must generate equivalent fractions before using common denominators to compare
- Equivalent fractions on a number line hard
Understanding equivalence conceptually is prerequisite to explaining algebraically
- Equivalent fractions hard
Diagram-based equivalent fractions is prerequisite to formal equivalence understanding
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Working with 1/4, 2/4, 3/4 extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- What Is a Half? hard
Understanding quarters extends from understanding halves — both are equal parts but quarters requires dividing into 4
- Division as equal sharing hard
Finding a half requires equal sharing into 2 groups — a division concept
- Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
Division as equal sharing/grouping requires understanding subtraction as taking away/separating
- Fraction Notation hard
Writing fractions like 1/3 and 3/4 requires knowing numerator and denominator
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Working with 1/4, 2/4, 3/4 extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- Fraction Notation hard
Writing fractions like 1/3 and 3/4 requires knowing numerator and denominator
- Reading +, −, and = symbols soft
Writing fraction sentences (1/2 of 6 = 3) requires understanding the = sign
- Reading and writing numbers to 20 hard
Writing number sentences requires reading and writing numerals
- How Many in Total? hard
Reading/writing numerals 0–20 requires understanding that numerals represent quantities (cardinality)
- Writing digits 0-9 hard
Writing numerals requires the motor skill of forming digits 0-9 (taught in English handwriting)
- Addition as combining or putting together two hard
Reading/writing the + symbol requires understanding what addition means
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
- Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
Reading/writing the − symbol requires understanding what subtraction means
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding subtraction as taking away requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
- Fractions of amounts hard
Writing fractions and recognising equivalence requires knowing what the fractions mean
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Working with 1/4, 2/4, 3/4 extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- What Is a Half? hard
Understanding quarters extends from understanding halves — both are equal parts but quarters requires dividing into 4
- Division as equal sharing hard
Finding a half requires equal sharing into 2 groups — a division concept
- Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
Division as equal sharing/grouping requires understanding subtraction as taking away/separating
- Fraction Notation hard
Writing fractions like 1/3 and 3/4 requires knowing numerator and denominator
- Fraction Notation hard
Writing fractions and recognising equivalence requires 'equivalent fraction' vocabulary
- Fractions of amounts hard
Recognising fractions of shapes/quantities is prerequisite to formal unit fraction understanding
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Working with 1/4, 2/4, 3/4 extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- What Is a Half? hard
Understanding quarters extends from understanding halves — both are equal parts but quarters requires dividing into 4
- Division as equal sharing hard
Finding a half requires equal sharing into 2 groups — a division concept
- Division as equal sharing hard
Finding a half requires equal sharing into 2 groups — a division concept
- Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
Division as equal sharing/grouping requires understanding subtraction as taking away/separating
- Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
Division as equal sharing/grouping requires understanding subtraction as taking away/separating
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding subtraction as taking away requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
- Fraction Notation hard
Writing fractions like 1/3 and 3/4 requires knowing numerator and denominator
- Fraction Notation hard
Understanding a/b as a parts of 1/b requires numerator, denominator, and unit fraction vocabulary
- Splitting shapes into equal parts (age 7+) hard
Partition into equal shares is prerequisite to understanding unit fractions
- Decomposing a shape into more equal shares hard
Understanding equal shares of different shapes requires concept of more shares = smaller
- Halves & Quarters of Shapes hard
Comparing share sizes requires experience partitioning into halves and quarters
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Partitioning into fourths/quarters extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Partitioning into fourths/quarters extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- What Is a Half? hard
Understanding quarters extends from understanding halves — both are equal parts but quarters requires dividing into 4
- Division as equal sharing hard
Finding a half requires equal sharing into 2 groups — a division concept
- Fractions on a number line (age 8+) hard
Equivalent fractions as the same point on a number line directly uses the fraction number-line representation
- Fractions on a number line hard
Prior number-line fraction experience feeds into formal unit-fraction placement
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Working with 1/4, 2/4, 3/4 extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- What Is a Half? hard
Understanding quarters extends from understanding halves — both are equal parts but quarters requires dividing into 4
- Division as equal sharing hard
Finding a half requires equal sharing into 2 groups — a division concept
- Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
Division as equal sharing/grouping requires understanding subtraction as taking away/separating
- Fraction Notation hard
Writing fractions like 1/3 and 3/4 requires knowing numerator and denominator
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Working with 1/4, 2/4, 3/4 extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- Fraction Notation hard
Writing fractions like 1/3 and 3/4 requires knowing numerator and denominator
- Fractions of amounts hard
Recognising fractions of shapes/quantities is prerequisite to formal unit fraction understanding
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Working with 1/4, 2/4, 3/4 extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- What Is a Half? hard
Understanding quarters extends from understanding halves — both are equal parts but quarters requires dividing into 4
- Division as equal sharing hard
Finding a half requires equal sharing into 2 groups — a division concept
- Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
Division as equal sharing/grouping requires understanding subtraction as taking away/separating
- Fraction Notation hard
Writing fractions like 1/3 and 3/4 requires knowing numerator and denominator
- Fraction Notation hard
Understanding a/b as a parts of 1/b requires numerator, denominator, and unit fraction vocabulary
- Splitting shapes into equal parts (age 7+) hard
Partition into equal shares is prerequisite to understanding unit fractions
- Decomposing a shape into more equal shares hard
Understanding equal shares of different shapes requires concept of more shares = smaller
- Halves & Quarters of Shapes hard
Comparing share sizes requires experience partitioning into halves and quarters
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Partitioning into fourths/quarters extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- Equivalent fractions (age 8+) hard
Generating equivalent fractions with visual models is prerequisite to algebraic explanation of equivalence
- Equivalent fractions on a number line hard
Must understand equivalence before generating equivalent fractions
- Equivalent fractions hard
Diagram-based equivalent fractions is prerequisite to formal equivalence understanding
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Working with 1/4, 2/4, 3/4 extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- Fraction Notation hard
Writing fractions like 1/3 and 3/4 requires knowing numerator and denominator
- Reading +, −, and = symbols soft
Writing fraction sentences (1/2 of 6 = 3) requires understanding the = sign
- Reading and writing numbers to 20 hard
Writing number sentences requires reading and writing numerals
- Addition as combining or putting together two hard
Reading/writing the + symbol requires understanding what addition means
- Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
Reading/writing the − symbol requires understanding what subtraction means
- Fractions of amounts hard
Writing fractions and recognising equivalence requires knowing what the fractions mean
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Working with 1/4, 2/4, 3/4 extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- Fraction Notation hard
Writing fractions like 1/3 and 3/4 requires knowing numerator and denominator
- Fraction Notation hard
Writing fractions and recognising equivalence requires 'equivalent fraction' vocabulary
- Fractions of amounts hard
Recognising fractions of shapes/quantities is prerequisite to formal unit fraction understanding
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Working with 1/4, 2/4, 3/4 extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- What Is a Half? hard
Understanding quarters extends from understanding halves — both are equal parts but quarters requires dividing into 4
- Division as equal sharing hard
Finding a half requires equal sharing into 2 groups — a division concept
- Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
Division as equal sharing/grouping requires understanding subtraction as taking away/separating
- Fraction Notation hard
Writing fractions like 1/3 and 3/4 requires knowing numerator and denominator
- Fraction Notation hard
Understanding a/b as a parts of 1/b requires numerator, denominator, and unit fraction vocabulary
- Splitting shapes into equal parts (age 7+) hard
Partition into equal shares is prerequisite to understanding unit fractions
- Decomposing a shape into more equal shares hard
Understanding equal shares of different shapes requires concept of more shares = smaller
- Halves & Quarters of Shapes hard
Comparing share sizes requires experience partitioning into halves and quarters
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Partitioning into fourths/quarters extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- Fractions on a number line (age 8+) hard
Equivalent fractions as the same point on a number line directly uses the fraction number-line representation
- Fractions on a number line hard
Prior number-line fraction experience feeds into formal unit-fraction placement
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Working with 1/4, 2/4, 3/4 extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- Fraction Notation hard
Writing fractions like 1/3 and 3/4 requires knowing numerator and denominator
- Fractions of amounts hard
Recognising fractions of shapes/quantities is prerequisite to formal unit fraction understanding
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Working with 1/4, 2/4, 3/4 extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- Fraction Notation hard
Writing fractions like 1/3 and 3/4 requires knowing numerator and denominator
- Fraction Notation hard
Understanding a/b as a parts of 1/b requires numerator, denominator, and unit fraction vocabulary
- Splitting shapes into equal parts (age 7+) hard
Partition into equal shares is prerequisite to understanding unit fractions
- Decomposing a shape into more equal shares hard
Understanding equal shares of different shapes requires concept of more shares = smaller
- Comparing fractions (age 8+) hard
Same-numerator/denom comparison is prerequisite to different-denom comparison
- Comparing fractions hard
Same-denominator comparison experience is prerequisite to same-numerator comparison
- Decomposing a shape into more equal shares soft
More shares = smaller helps understand why 1/5 < 1/3
- Halves & Quarters of Shapes hard
Comparing share sizes requires experience partitioning into halves and quarters
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Partitioning into fourths/quarters extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- What Is a Half? hard
Understanding quarters extends from understanding halves — both are equal parts but quarters requires dividing into 4
- Division as equal sharing hard
Finding a half requires equal sharing into 2 groups — a division concept
- Division as equal sharing hard
Finding a half requires equal sharing into 2 groups — a division concept
- Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
Division as equal sharing/grouping requires understanding subtraction as taking away/separating
- Fractions on a number line hard
Comparing fractions requires understanding them as numbers on a line
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Working with 1/4, 2/4, 3/4 extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- What Is a Half? hard
Understanding quarters extends from understanding halves — both are equal parts but quarters requires dividing into 4
- Division as equal sharing hard
Finding a half requires equal sharing into 2 groups — a division concept
- Division as equal sharing hard
Finding a half requires equal sharing into 2 groups — a division concept
- Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
Division as equal sharing/grouping requires understanding subtraction as taking away/separating
- Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
Division as equal sharing/grouping requires understanding subtraction as taking away/separating
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding subtraction as taking away requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
- Fraction Notation hard
Writing fractions like 1/3 and 3/4 requires knowing numerator and denominator
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Working with 1/4, 2/4, 3/4 extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- What Is a Half? hard
Understanding quarters extends from understanding halves — both are equal parts but quarters requires dividing into 4
- Division as equal sharing hard
Finding a half requires equal sharing into 2 groups — a division concept
- Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
Division as equal sharing/grouping requires understanding subtraction as taking away/separating
- Fraction Notation hard
Writing fractions like 1/3 and 3/4 requires knowing numerator and denominator
- Fractions of a whole hard
Must understand unit fraction size reasoning for same-numerator comparison
- Fractions of amounts hard
Recognising fractions of shapes/quantities is prerequisite to formal unit fraction understanding
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Working with 1/4, 2/4, 3/4 extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- What Is a Half? hard
Understanding quarters extends from understanding halves — both are equal parts but quarters requires dividing into 4
- Division as equal sharing hard
Finding a half requires equal sharing into 2 groups — a division concept
- Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
Division as equal sharing/grouping requires understanding subtraction as taking away/separating
- Division as equal sharing hard
Finding a half requires equal sharing into 2 groups — a division concept
- Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
Division as equal sharing/grouping requires understanding subtraction as taking away/separating
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding subtraction as taking away requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
- Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
Division as equal sharing/grouping requires understanding subtraction as taking away/separating
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding subtraction as taking away requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Fraction Notation hard
Writing fractions like 1/3 and 3/4 requires knowing numerator and denominator
- Fraction Notation hard
Understanding a/b as a parts of 1/b requires numerator, denominator, and unit fraction vocabulary
- Splitting shapes into equal parts (age 7+) hard
Partition into equal shares is prerequisite to understanding unit fractions
- Decomposing a shape into more equal shares hard
Understanding equal shares of different shapes requires concept of more shares = smaller
- Halves & Quarters of Shapes hard
Comparing share sizes requires experience partitioning into halves and quarters
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Partitioning into fourths/quarters extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- What Is a Half? hard
Understanding quarters extends from understanding halves — both are equal parts but quarters requires dividing into 4
- Division as equal sharing hard
Finding a half requires equal sharing into 2 groups — a division concept
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Partitioning into fourths/quarters extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- What Is a Half? hard
Understanding quarters extends from understanding halves — both are equal parts but quarters requires dividing into 4
- Division as equal sharing hard
Finding a half requires equal sharing into 2 groups — a division concept
- Division as equal sharing hard
Finding a half requires equal sharing into 2 groups — a division concept
- Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
Division as equal sharing/grouping requires understanding subtraction as taking away/separating
- Learning from Mistakes soft
Critiquing others' mathematical reasoning and explaining errors applies the universal error-analysis habit to peer arguments
- Checking Your Own Work soft
Investigating why something was wrong grows from the earlier habit of checking whether an answer seems right
- Trying a New Approach hard
Error analysis requires the habit of trying different approaches — you need to have tried something before you can analyse what went wrong
- Feeling of not understanding hard
Strategy switching is triggered by noticing the current approach isn't working — requires comprehension monitoring
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Planning a Task hard
Switching strategy requires first having made a plan — you can only switch away from something you chose deliberately
- Checking Your Own Work hard
Planning before a task grows from the habit of checking back after finishing — both are self-regulatory bookends
- Inferring Characters' Feelings and Motives hard
Justified views requires drawing inferences with evidence
- Predicting what happens next soft
Drawing inferences about characters' feelings and justifying them with evidence is enriched by prior experience predicting what might happen next — both require reading ahead of the literal text
- Reading between the lines hard
Inferring characters' feelings/motives with evidence builds on identifying key details and making simple inferences
- Self-Correcting While Reading soft
Inferring and justifying inferences with text evidence requires the metacognitive habit of checking that the text makes sense as you read — a reader who doesn't self-monitor will miss the cues on which inference depends
- Monitoring Comprehension soft
Self-correcting while reading requires the awareness that decoding correctly is not the same as understanding
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Noticing the decoding/understanding gap is the English-specific form of the universal comprehension-monitoring habit
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Reading for Meaning hard
Noticing the gap between decoding and understanding requires first having the foundational idea that reading means making meaning
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Understanding that reading means making meaning is the English-domain grounding of the universal habit of noticing when you don't understand
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Checking that a text makes sense while reading and self-correcting is the reading-domain form of the universal comprehension-monitoring habit
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Reading with Expression and Accuracy soft
Reading comprehension monitoring builds on earlier fluency skills
- Blending Sounds to Read Words soft
Blending helps attempt unfamiliar words but sight words bypass phonics
- Story Sequence and Central Message soft
Drawing inferences about motivations is enriched by the prior ability to understand and discuss the sequence of events and connections between them — inference relies on understanding what happened and in what order
- Main Topic of Informational Texts soft
Understanding main topic and key details of informational texts supports discussing how items of information are related
- Reading with Expression and Accuracy soft
Expressive reading supports comprehension of sequence and meaning
- Blending Sounds to Read Words soft
Blending helps attempt unfamiliar words but sight words bypass phonics
- Domain Vocabulary Across Subject Areas soft
Drawing inferences from complex texts requires academic vocabulary for reasoning about evidence and argument
- Discussing and Questioning New Words hard
Academic and domain-specific vocabulary acquisition builds on the habit of discussing word meanings and linking new vocabulary to known words
- Defining Words soft
Defining academic words requires the ability to define words by category and attribute
- How Many in Total? soft
Sorting and categorising objects uses the same counting/cardinality skills from maths
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Writing Techniques for Effect soft
Argument writing benefits from conscious application of rhetorical and literary devices drawn from reading — the student who can use tricolon or contrast intentionally will write more persuasive arguments
- Writing Across Genres hard
Applying rhetorical devices (tricolon, anaphora, rhetorical questions) to enhance writing impact builds on the prior ability to write confidently for a wide range of purposes and forms beyond narrative
- Planning Narratives hard
KS3 narrative technique builds on KS2 planning narrative writing from author techniques
- Connecting New & Old Ideas soft
Drawing on techniques observed in texts read requires the habit of connecting new information to existing knowledge from reading
- Thinking Before Starting hard
Making connections between new and old ideas requires the habit of activating prior knowledge first
- Persisting When It's Hard hard
Activating prior knowledge requires the foundational habit of persistent engagement with new material
- Writing Craft Vocabulary soft
Planning narrative like authors requires vocabulary of 'technique', 'structure', 'voice', and 'style'
- Choosing Form and Tone for Your Audience soft
Authorial techniques planning builds on identifying audience/purpose
- Writing Craft Vocabulary hard
Identifying audience, purpose, form, tone, and register before writing requires all these as named vocabulary
- Formal and Informal English soft
Formal/informal register awareness supports matching tone to audience and purpose
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Using talk to explore ideas and speculate requires noticing what you don't yet understand — the comprehension-monitoring habit in a spoken register
- Planning Ideas Before Writing hard
Identifying audience and purpose before writing builds on general planning skills; the step up is from planning content to strategically matching form and tone to audience
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Using talk to explore ideas and speculate requires noticing what you don't yet understand — the comprehension-monitoring habit in a spoken register
- Expressing Feelings with Words soft
Writing about real events draws on the ability to put feelings into words — the SEL skill of expressing emotions verbally before encoding them in written form
- Triggers and Causes of Feelings soft
Expressing feelings in words benefits from understanding triggers
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Informative writing requires knowing 'genre', 'audience', 'purpose', and 'detail' as concepts
- Simple Stories with Beginning and Ending hard
Writing about real events builds on narrative writing skills
- Rote counting to 100 soft
Sequencing events in narrative writing draws on the ordinal/sequential thinking developed through counting
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing simple narratives requires 'narrative', 'sequence', 'beginning', 'middle', 'ending' as shared vocabulary
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing for different purposes requires the vocabulary of purpose, genre, recount, and instruction
- Simple Stories with Beginning and Ending hard
Organising paragraphs requires narrative writing ability
- Rote counting to 100 soft
Sequencing events in narrative writing draws on the ordinal/sequential thinking developed through counting
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing simple narratives requires 'narrative', 'sequence', 'beginning', 'middle', 'ending' as shared vocabulary
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Organising into paragraphs requires 'paragraph', 'heading', 'theme', and 'organisation' as named concepts
- Expressing Feelings with Words soft
Writing about real events draws on the ability to put feelings into words — the SEL skill of expressing emotions verbally before encoding them in written form
- Triggers and Causes of Feelings soft
Expressing feelings in words benefits from understanding triggers
- Naming Basic Emotions soft
Calming strategies benefit from naming the emotion you're trying to manage
- Words for Big Feelings hard
Calming strategies (calm, breathe, settle) rely on knowing this vocabulary to name and apply the techniques
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Informative writing requires knowing 'genre', 'audience', 'purpose', and 'detail' as concepts
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
- Simple Stories with Beginning and Ending hard
Writing about real events builds on narrative writing skills
- Rote counting to 100 soft
Sequencing events in narrative writing draws on the ordinal/sequential thinking developed through counting
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing simple narratives requires 'narrative', 'sequence', 'beginning', 'middle', 'ending' as shared vocabulary
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing for different purposes requires the vocabulary of purpose, genre, recount, and instruction
- Simple Stories with Beginning and Ending soft
Experience with narrative writing supports planning narratives
- Rote counting to 100 soft
Sequencing events in narrative writing draws on the ordinal/sequential thinking developed through counting
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing simple narratives requires 'narrative', 'sequence', 'beginning', 'middle', 'ending' as shared vocabulary
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Planning before writing requires 'plan', 'draft', 'compose', 'sequence', and 'key words' as working vocabulary
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
- Author's word choices soft
Identifying audience and purpose before writing requires understanding how authorial choices shape reader experience — you are now making those choices deliberately
- Connecting New & Old Ideas soft
Recognising how authorial choices create effects requires connecting your reading experience to existing knowledge of how language and texts work
- Thinking Before Starting hard
Making connections between new and old ideas requires the habit of activating prior knowledge first
- Persisting When It's Hard hard
Activating prior knowledge requires the foundational habit of persistent engagement with new material
- Monitoring Comprehension hard
Recognising authorial effects requires reading for meaning rather than just decoding — you can only notice the effect of a word choice if you are genuinely engaging with meaning
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Noticing the decoding/understanding gap is the English-specific form of the universal comprehension-monitoring habit
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Reading for Meaning hard
Noticing the gap between decoding and understanding requires first having the foundational idea that reading means making meaning
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Understanding that reading means making meaning is the English-domain grounding of the universal habit of noticing when you don't understand
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Planning a Task soft
Identifying audience and purpose before writing is the writing-domain form of the universal planning habit
- Checking Your Own Work hard
Planning before a task grows from the habit of checking back after finishing — both are self-regulatory bookends
- Cohesion and Transitions Across Writing hard
Writing narratives with pacing, point of view, and varied transitions depends on command of the full toolkit of transitional and cohesive devices for signalling shifts in time, setting, and perspective
- Pronouns for clarity soft
Pronoun cohesion is a key cohesive device; prior work on choosing pronouns for clarity feeds directly into paragraph-level cohesion
- Organising Writing into Paragraphs hard
Cohesion within paragraphs requires paragraphing knowledge; learners must organise text into paragraphs before learning to build cohesion within them
- Expressing Feelings with Words soft
Writing about real events draws on the ability to put feelings into words — the SEL skill of expressing emotions verbally before encoding them in written form
- Triggers and Causes of Feelings soft
Expressing feelings in words benefits from understanding triggers
- Naming Basic Emotions soft
Calming strategies benefit from naming the emotion you're trying to manage
- Words for Big Feelings hard
Calming strategies (calm, breathe, settle) rely on knowing this vocabulary to name and apply the techniques
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Informative writing requires knowing 'genre', 'audience', 'purpose', and 'detail' as concepts
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
- Simple Stories with Beginning and Ending hard
Writing about real events builds on narrative writing skills
- Rote counting to 100 soft
Sequencing events in narrative writing draws on the ordinal/sequential thinking developed through counting
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing simple narratives requires 'narrative', 'sequence', 'beginning', 'middle', 'ending' as shared vocabulary
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing for different purposes requires the vocabulary of purpose, genre, recount, and instruction
- Simple Stories with Beginning and Ending hard
Organising paragraphs requires narrative writing ability
- Rote counting to 100 soft
Sequencing events in narrative writing draws on the ordinal/sequential thinking developed through counting
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing simple narratives requires 'narrative', 'sequence', 'beginning', 'middle', 'ending' as shared vocabulary
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Organising into paragraphs requires 'paragraph', 'heading', 'theme', and 'organisation' as named concepts
- Paragraph Cohesion hard
KS3 transitions build on KS2 cohesive devices across paragraphs with ellipsis
- Pronouns for clarity soft
Pronoun cohesion is a key cohesive device; prior work on choosing pronouns for clarity feeds directly into paragraph-level cohesion
- Organising Writing into Paragraphs hard
Cohesion within paragraphs requires paragraphing knowledge; learners must organise text into paragraphs before learning to build cohesion within them
- Expressing Feelings with Words soft
Writing about real events draws on the ability to put feelings into words — the SEL skill of expressing emotions verbally before encoding them in written form
- Triggers and Causes of Feelings soft
Expressing feelings in words benefits from understanding triggers
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Informative writing requires knowing 'genre', 'audience', 'purpose', and 'detail' as concepts
- Simple Stories with Beginning and Ending hard
Writing about real events builds on narrative writing skills
- Rote counting to 100 soft
Sequencing events in narrative writing draws on the ordinal/sequential thinking developed through counting
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing simple narratives requires 'narrative', 'sequence', 'beginning', 'middle', 'ending' as shared vocabulary
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing for different purposes requires the vocabulary of purpose, genre, recount, and instruction
- Simple Stories with Beginning and Ending hard
Organising paragraphs requires narrative writing ability
- Rote counting to 100 soft
Sequencing events in narrative writing draws on the ordinal/sequential thinking developed through counting
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing simple narratives requires 'narrative', 'sequence', 'beginning', 'middle', 'ending' as shared vocabulary
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Organising into paragraphs requires 'paragraph', 'heading', 'theme', and 'organisation' as named concepts
- Fronted Adverbials and Commas soft
Fronted adverbials are one of the key mechanisms for linking paragraphs (e.g. Meanwhile, Later that day)
- Expressing Time, Place and Cause hard
Fronted adverbials build on understanding conjunctions, adverbs, and prepositions to express time and cause
- Joining Words with 'And' hard
Must be able to join with 'and' before learning subordination and other co-ordinating conjunctions
- Cohesion within paragraphs hard
Linking across paragraphs builds on within-paragraph cohesion; learners must achieve cohesion within paragraphs before linking between them
- Pronouns for clarity soft
Pronoun cohesion is a key cohesive device; prior work on choosing pronouns for clarity feeds directly into paragraph-level cohesion
- Organising Writing into Paragraphs hard
Cohesion within paragraphs requires paragraphing knowledge; learners must organise text into paragraphs before learning to build cohesion within them
- Expressing Feelings with Words soft
Writing about real events draws on the ability to put feelings into words — the SEL skill of expressing emotions verbally before encoding them in written form
- Simple Stories with Beginning and Ending hard
Writing about real events builds on narrative writing skills
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing for different purposes requires the vocabulary of purpose, genre, recount, and instruction
- Simple Stories with Beginning and Ending hard
Organising paragraphs requires narrative writing ability
- Rote counting to 100 soft
Sequencing events in narrative writing draws on the ordinal/sequential thinking developed through counting
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing simple narratives requires 'narrative', 'sequence', 'beginning', 'middle', 'ending' as shared vocabulary
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Organising into paragraphs requires 'paragraph', 'heading', 'theme', and 'organisation' as named concepts
- Linking paragraphs with adverbials hard
Cross-paragraph linking extends KS2 linking ideas across paragraphs with adverbials
- Fronted Adverbials and Commas soft
Fronted adverbials are one of the key mechanisms for linking paragraphs (e.g. Meanwhile, Later that day)
- Expressing Time, Place and Cause hard
Fronted adverbials build on understanding conjunctions, adverbs, and prepositions to express time and cause
- Joining Words with 'And' hard
Must be able to join with 'and' before learning subordination and other co-ordinating conjunctions
- Cohesion within paragraphs hard
Linking across paragraphs builds on within-paragraph cohesion; learners must achieve cohesion within paragraphs before linking between them
- Pronouns for clarity soft
Pronoun cohesion is a key cohesive device; prior work on choosing pronouns for clarity feeds directly into paragraph-level cohesion
- Organising Writing into Paragraphs hard
Cohesion within paragraphs requires paragraphing knowledge; learners must organise text into paragraphs before learning to build cohesion within them
- Expressing Feelings with Words soft
Writing about real events draws on the ability to put feelings into words — the SEL skill of expressing emotions verbally before encoding them in written form
- Triggers and Causes of Feelings soft
Expressing feelings in words benefits from understanding triggers
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Informative writing requires knowing 'genre', 'audience', 'purpose', and 'detail' as concepts
- Simple Stories with Beginning and Ending hard
Writing about real events builds on narrative writing skills
- Rote counting to 100 soft
Sequencing events in narrative writing draws on the ordinal/sequential thinking developed through counting
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing simple narratives requires 'narrative', 'sequence', 'beginning', 'middle', 'ending' as shared vocabulary
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing for different purposes requires the vocabulary of purpose, genre, recount, and instruction
- Simple Stories with Beginning and Ending hard
Organising paragraphs requires narrative writing ability
- Rote counting to 100 soft
Sequencing events in narrative writing draws on the ordinal/sequential thinking developed through counting
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing simple narratives requires 'narrative', 'sequence', 'beginning', 'middle', 'ending' as shared vocabulary
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Organising into paragraphs requires 'paragraph', 'heading', 'theme', and 'organisation' as named concepts
- Narrative Writing hard
KS3 narrative writing extends KS2 writing narratives with settings, characters, and plot
- Writing Craft Vocabulary soft
Developed narrative requires craft vocabulary including 'structure', 'voice', 'technique', and 'style'
- Simple Stories with Beginning and Ending hard
Developed narrative with settings/characters/plot builds on simple sequential narrative writing
- Rote counting to 100 soft
Sequencing events in narrative writing draws on the ordinal/sequential thinking developed through counting
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing simple narratives requires 'narrative', 'sequence', 'beginning', 'middle', 'ending' as shared vocabulary
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Using talk to explore ideas and speculate requires noticing what you don't yet understand — the comprehension-monitoring habit in a spoken register
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
- Choosing Form and Tone for Your Audience hard
Writing for different forms requires KS2 audience/purpose awareness
- Writing Craft Vocabulary hard
Identifying audience, purpose, form, tone, and register before writing requires all these as named vocabulary
- Formal and Informal English soft
Formal/informal register awareness supports matching tone to audience and purpose
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Using talk to explore ideas and speculate requires noticing what you don't yet understand — the comprehension-monitoring habit in a spoken register
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Planning Ideas Before Writing hard
Identifying audience and purpose before writing builds on general planning skills; the step up is from planning content to strategically matching form and tone to audience
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Using talk to explore ideas and speculate requires noticing what you don't yet understand — the comprehension-monitoring habit in a spoken register
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Expressing Feelings with Words soft
Writing about real events draws on the ability to put feelings into words — the SEL skill of expressing emotions verbally before encoding them in written form
- Triggers and Causes of Feelings soft
Expressing feelings in words benefits from understanding triggers
- Naming Basic Emotions soft
Calming strategies benefit from naming the emotion you're trying to manage
- Words for Big Feelings hard
Calming strategies (calm, breathe, settle) rely on knowing this vocabulary to name and apply the techniques
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Informative writing requires knowing 'genre', 'audience', 'purpose', and 'detail' as concepts
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
- Simple Stories with Beginning and Ending hard
Writing about real events builds on narrative writing skills
- Rote counting to 100 soft
Sequencing events in narrative writing draws on the ordinal/sequential thinking developed through counting
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing simple narratives requires 'narrative', 'sequence', 'beginning', 'middle', 'ending' as shared vocabulary
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing for different purposes requires the vocabulary of purpose, genre, recount, and instruction
- Simple Stories with Beginning and Ending hard
Organising paragraphs requires narrative writing ability
- Rote counting to 100 soft
Sequencing events in narrative writing draws on the ordinal/sequential thinking developed through counting
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing simple narratives requires 'narrative', 'sequence', 'beginning', 'middle', 'ending' as shared vocabulary
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Organising into paragraphs requires 'paragraph', 'heading', 'theme', and 'organisation' as named concepts
- Expressing Feelings with Words soft
Writing about real events draws on the ability to put feelings into words — the SEL skill of expressing emotions verbally before encoding them in written form
- Triggers and Causes of Feelings soft
Expressing feelings in words benefits from understanding triggers
- Naming Basic Emotions soft
Calming strategies benefit from naming the emotion you're trying to manage
- Words for Big Feelings hard
Calming strategies (calm, breathe, settle) rely on knowing this vocabulary to name and apply the techniques
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Informative writing requires knowing 'genre', 'audience', 'purpose', and 'detail' as concepts
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
- Simple Stories with Beginning and Ending hard
Writing about real events builds on narrative writing skills
- Rote counting to 100 soft
Sequencing events in narrative writing draws on the ordinal/sequential thinking developed through counting
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing simple narratives requires 'narrative', 'sequence', 'beginning', 'middle', 'ending' as shared vocabulary
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing for different purposes requires the vocabulary of purpose, genre, recount, and instruction
- Simple Stories with Beginning and Ending soft
Experience with narrative writing supports planning narratives
- Rote counting to 100 soft
Sequencing events in narrative writing draws on the ordinal/sequential thinking developed through counting
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing simple narratives requires 'narrative', 'sequence', 'beginning', 'middle', 'ending' as shared vocabulary
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Using talk to explore ideas and speculate requires noticing what you don't yet understand — the comprehension-monitoring habit in a spoken register
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Planning before writing requires 'plan', 'draft', 'compose', 'sequence', and 'key words' as working vocabulary
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Using talk to explore ideas and speculate requires noticing what you don't yet understand — the comprehension-monitoring habit in a spoken register
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
- Author's word choices soft
Identifying audience and purpose before writing requires understanding how authorial choices shape reader experience — you are now making those choices deliberately
- Connecting New & Old Ideas soft
Recognising how authorial choices create effects requires connecting your reading experience to existing knowledge of how language and texts work
- Thinking Before Starting hard
Making connections between new and old ideas requires the habit of activating prior knowledge first
- Persisting When It's Hard hard
Activating prior knowledge requires the foundational habit of persistent engagement with new material
- Monitoring Comprehension hard
Recognising authorial effects requires reading for meaning rather than just decoding — you can only notice the effect of a word choice if you are genuinely engaging with meaning
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Noticing the decoding/understanding gap is the English-specific form of the universal comprehension-monitoring habit
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Reading for Meaning hard
Noticing the gap between decoding and understanding requires first having the foundational idea that reading means making meaning
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Understanding that reading means making meaning is the English-domain grounding of the universal habit of noticing when you don't understand
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Planning a Task soft
Identifying audience and purpose before writing is the writing-domain form of the universal planning habit
- Checking Your Own Work hard
Planning before a task grows from the habit of checking back after finishing — both are self-regulatory bookends
- Figurative Language and Literary Devices hard
Using literary devices in writing requires recognising them in reading first
- Using and Evaluating Textual Evidence soft
Analysing word choice impact requires citing evidence from the text
- Justifying Views About Texts hard
Citing textual evidence extends KS2 providing reasoned justifications with evidence
- Understanding fractions (age 9+) soft
Cross-subject: providing reasoned justifications for views about texts benefits from constructing logical multi-step arguments in maths
- Types of angles (age 8+) hard
Measuring and drawing angles with a protractor requires knowing how to mark and label angles using standard notation
- Types of angles (age 8+) hard
Finding unknown angles using equations requires reading angle diagrams and interpreting arc marks and notation
- Types of angles (age 8+) hard
Angle sum rules (360° at a point, 180° on a line) are applied through reading angle diagrams with correct notation
- Justifying mathematical reasoning (age 8+) hard
Age 8-9 constructing arguments is prerequisite to age 9-10 level
- Equivalent fractions (age 8+) soft
Generating/explaining equivalent fractions exercises justification skills
- Equivalent fractions on a number line hard
Must understand equivalence before generating equivalent fractions
- Equivalent fractions hard
Diagram-based equivalent fractions is prerequisite to formal equivalence understanding
- Fractions of amounts hard
Recognising fractions of shapes/quantities is prerequisite to formal unit fraction understanding
- Fraction Notation hard
Understanding a/b as a parts of 1/b requires numerator, denominator, and unit fraction vocabulary
- Splitting shapes into equal parts (age 7+) hard
Partition into equal shares is prerequisite to understanding unit fractions
- Fractions on a number line (age 8+) hard
Equivalent fractions as the same point on a number line directly uses the fraction number-line representation
- Fractions on a number line hard
Prior number-line fraction experience feeds into formal unit-fraction placement
- Comparing fractions (age 8+) soft
Fraction comparison requires constructing arguments about relative size
- Comparing fractions hard
Same-denominator comparison experience is prerequisite to same-numerator comparison
- Decomposing a shape into more equal shares soft
More shares = smaller helps understand why 1/5 < 1/3
- Halves & Quarters of Shapes hard
Comparing share sizes requires experience partitioning into halves and quarters
- Fractions on a number line hard
Comparing fractions requires understanding them as numbers on a line
- Fractions of a whole hard
Must understand unit fraction size reasoning for same-numerator comparison
- Fractions of amounts hard
Recognising fractions of shapes/quantities is prerequisite to formal unit fraction understanding
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Working with 1/4, 2/4, 3/4 extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- Fraction Notation hard
Writing fractions like 1/3 and 3/4 requires knowing numerator and denominator
- Fraction Notation hard
Understanding a/b as a parts of 1/b requires numerator, denominator, and unit fraction vocabulary
- Splitting shapes into equal parts (age 7+) hard
Partition into equal shares is prerequisite to understanding unit fractions
- Decomposing a shape into more equal shares hard
Understanding equal shares of different shapes requires concept of more shares = smaller
- Justifying mathematical reasoning hard
Age 7-8 explaining/justifying is prerequisite to age 8-9 level
- Describing Aloud soft
Cross-subject: constructing and following multi-step mathematical arguments requires the ability to express thoughts and give well-structured explanations orally
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
- Teaching It Back soft
Constructing multi-step mathematical arguments and identifying errors in reasoning is the maths form of the universal self-explanation habit
- Explaining Mathematical Reasoning soft
The universal self-explanation habit (LtL 7-8) builds on the maths-specific practice of explaining reasoning when prompted (MT 6-7)
- Showing Your Working hard
Age 6-7 explaining with diagrams/logic builds on age 5-6 showing and telling with objects
- What the equals sign means soft
Determining whether equations are true/false exercises evaluating and justifying
- Thinking Before Starting hard
Explaining in your own words requires connecting new learning to existing knowledge already held in mind
- Persisting When It's Hard hard
Activating prior knowledge requires the foundational habit of persistent engagement with new material
- Showing Your Working hard
Age 6-7 explaining with diagrams/logic builds on age 5-6 showing and telling with objects
- Numbers up to 10 into pairs soft
Explaining part-part-whole decompositions exercises showing and telling
- Number bonds to 9 soft
Explaining how to find number bonds to 10 exercises showing thinking with objects
- Listening and responding soft
Explaining mathematical reasoning orally requires basic listening and responding skills
- What the equals sign means soft
Determining whether equations are true/false exercises evaluating and justifying
- Reading +, −, and = symbols hard
Deep understanding of = requires already being able to read and write number sentences
- Addition as combining or putting together two hard
Understanding commutativity of addition requires understanding addition
- Adding and subtracting (age 7+) soft
Explaining columnar methods exercises identifying and justifying steps
- Fluent adding and subtracting within 100 hard
Columnar methods require fluent within-100 addition/subtraction
- Addition and subtraction within 1000 hard
Formal columnar methods build on conceptual understanding of composing/decomposing
- The three digits of a three-digit number hard
Three-digit operations require three-digit place-value understanding
- Fluent adding and subtracting within 100 hard
Adding/subtracting within 1000 extends within-100 skills
- Addition and subtraction strategies (age 7+) soft
Explaining why strategies work exercises constructing arguments
- The three digits of a three-digit number hard
Explanations require place-value language and understanding
- Fluent adding and subtracting within 100 hard
Must be able to use strategies before explaining why they work
- Understanding Why soft
Critiquing the reasoning of others in maths requires the elaborative-interrogation habit of asking why things work or fail
- Teaching It Back hard
Asking 'why does this work?' requires first being able to explain what you know — interrogation builds on explanation
- Explaining Mathematical Reasoning soft
The universal self-explanation habit (LtL 7-8) builds on the maths-specific practice of explaining reasoning when prompted (MT 6-7)
- Showing Your Working hard
Age 6-7 explaining with diagrams/logic builds on age 5-6 showing and telling with objects
- What the equals sign means soft
Determining whether equations are true/false exercises evaluating and justifying
- Thinking Before Starting hard
Explaining in your own words requires connecting new learning to existing knowledge already held in mind
- Persisting When It's Hard hard
Activating prior knowledge requires the foundational habit of persistent engagement with new material
- Comparing fractions (age 9+) soft
Comparing fractions with different denominators requires constructing logical arguments
- Equivalent fractions (age 9+) hard
Must generate equivalent fractions before using common denominators to compare
- Equivalent fractions on a number line hard
Understanding equivalence conceptually is prerequisite to explaining algebraically
- Equivalent fractions hard
Diagram-based equivalent fractions is prerequisite to formal equivalence understanding
- Fractions of amounts hard
Recognising fractions of shapes/quantities is prerequisite to formal unit fraction understanding
- Fraction Notation hard
Understanding a/b as a parts of 1/b requires numerator, denominator, and unit fraction vocabulary
- Splitting shapes into equal parts (age 7+) hard
Partition into equal shares is prerequisite to understanding unit fractions
- Fractions on a number line (age 8+) hard
Equivalent fractions as the same point on a number line directly uses the fraction number-line representation
- Fractions on a number line hard
Prior number-line fraction experience feeds into formal unit-fraction placement
- Equivalent fractions (age 8+) hard
Generating equivalent fractions with visual models is prerequisite to algebraic explanation of equivalence
- Equivalent fractions on a number line hard
Must understand equivalence before generating equivalent fractions
- Equivalent fractions hard
Diagram-based equivalent fractions is prerequisite to formal equivalence understanding
- Fractions on a number line (age 8+) hard
Equivalent fractions as the same point on a number line directly uses the fraction number-line representation
- Comparing fractions (age 8+) hard
Same-numerator/denom comparison is prerequisite to different-denom comparison
- Comparing fractions hard
Same-denominator comparison experience is prerequisite to same-numerator comparison
- Decomposing a shape into more equal shares soft
More shares = smaller helps understand why 1/5 < 1/3
- Halves & Quarters of Shapes hard
Comparing share sizes requires experience partitioning into halves and quarters
- Fractions on a number line hard
Comparing fractions requires understanding them as numbers on a line
- Fractions of a whole hard
Must understand unit fraction size reasoning for same-numerator comparison
- Fractions of amounts hard
Recognising fractions of shapes/quantities is prerequisite to formal unit fraction understanding
- Finding halves and quarters (age 5+) hard
Working with 1/4, 2/4, 3/4 extends from Y1 understanding of quarters
- Fraction Notation hard
Writing fractions like 1/3 and 3/4 requires knowing numerator and denominator
- Fraction Notation hard
Understanding a/b as a parts of 1/b requires numerator, denominator, and unit fraction vocabulary
- Splitting shapes into equal parts (age 7+) hard
Partition into equal shares is prerequisite to understanding unit fractions
- Decomposing a shape into more equal shares hard
Understanding equal shares of different shapes requires concept of more shares = smaller
- Learning from Mistakes soft
Critiquing others' mathematical reasoning and explaining errors applies the universal error-analysis habit to peer arguments
- Checking Your Own Work soft
Investigating why something was wrong grows from the earlier habit of checking whether an answer seems right
- Trying a New Approach hard
Error analysis requires the habit of trying different approaches — you need to have tried something before you can analyse what went wrong
- Feeling of not understanding hard
Strategy switching is triggered by noticing the current approach isn't working — requires comprehension monitoring
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Planning a Task hard
Switching strategy requires first having made a plan — you can only switch away from something you chose deliberately
- Checking Your Own Work hard
Planning before a task grows from the habit of checking back after finishing — both are self-regulatory bookends
- Inferring Characters' Feelings and Motives hard
Justified views requires drawing inferences with evidence
- Predicting what happens next soft
Drawing inferences about characters' feelings and justifying them with evidence is enriched by prior experience predicting what might happen next — both require reading ahead of the literal text
- Reading between the lines hard
Inferring characters' feelings/motives with evidence builds on identifying key details and making simple inferences
- Self-Correcting While Reading soft
Inferring and justifying inferences with text evidence requires the metacognitive habit of checking that the text makes sense as you read — a reader who doesn't self-monitor will miss the cues on which inference depends
- Monitoring Comprehension soft
Self-correcting while reading requires the awareness that decoding correctly is not the same as understanding
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Noticing the decoding/understanding gap is the English-specific form of the universal comprehension-monitoring habit
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Reading for Meaning hard
Noticing the gap between decoding and understanding requires first having the foundational idea that reading means making meaning
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Understanding that reading means making meaning is the English-domain grounding of the universal habit of noticing when you don't understand
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Checking that a text makes sense while reading and self-correcting is the reading-domain form of the universal comprehension-monitoring habit
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Reading with Expression and Accuracy soft
Reading comprehension monitoring builds on earlier fluency skills
- Blending Sounds to Read Words soft
Blending helps attempt unfamiliar words but sight words bypass phonics
- Story Sequence and Central Message soft
Drawing inferences about motivations is enriched by the prior ability to understand and discuss the sequence of events and connections between them — inference relies on understanding what happened and in what order
- Main Topic of Informational Texts soft
Understanding main topic and key details of informational texts supports discussing how items of information are related
- Reading with Expression and Accuracy soft
Expressive reading supports comprehension of sequence and meaning
- Blending Sounds to Read Words soft
Blending helps attempt unfamiliar words but sight words bypass phonics
- Domain Vocabulary Across Subject Areas soft
Drawing inferences from complex texts requires academic vocabulary for reasoning about evidence and argument
- Discussing and Questioning New Words hard
Academic and domain-specific vocabulary acquisition builds on the habit of discussing word meanings and linking new vocabulary to known words
- Defining Words soft
Defining academic words requires the ability to define words by category and attribute
- How Many in Total? soft
Sorting and categorising objects uses the same counting/cardinality skills from maths
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Inferring Characters' Feelings and Motives hard
Evidence-based inference builds on KS2 drawing inferences from texts
- Predicting what happens next soft
Drawing inferences about characters' feelings and justifying them with evidence is enriched by prior experience predicting what might happen next — both require reading ahead of the literal text
- Reading between the lines hard
Inferring characters' feelings/motives with evidence builds on identifying key details and making simple inferences
- Self-Correcting While Reading soft
Inferring and justifying inferences with text evidence requires the metacognitive habit of checking that the text makes sense as you read — a reader who doesn't self-monitor will miss the cues on which inference depends
- Monitoring Comprehension soft
Self-correcting while reading requires the awareness that decoding correctly is not the same as understanding
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Noticing the decoding/understanding gap is the English-specific form of the universal comprehension-monitoring habit
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Reading for Meaning hard
Noticing the gap between decoding and understanding requires first having the foundational idea that reading means making meaning
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Understanding that reading means making meaning is the English-domain grounding of the universal habit of noticing when you don't understand
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Checking that a text makes sense while reading and self-correcting is the reading-domain form of the universal comprehension-monitoring habit
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Reading with Expression and Accuracy soft
Reading comprehension monitoring builds on earlier fluency skills
- Blending Sounds to Read Words soft
Blending helps attempt unfamiliar words but sight words bypass phonics
- Story Sequence and Central Message soft
Drawing inferences about motivations is enriched by the prior ability to understand and discuss the sequence of events and connections between them — inference relies on understanding what happened and in what order
- Main Topic of Informational Texts soft
Understanding main topic and key details of informational texts supports discussing how items of information are related
- Reading with Expression and Accuracy soft
Expressive reading supports comprehension of sequence and meaning
- Blending Sounds to Read Words soft
Blending helps attempt unfamiliar words but sight words bypass phonics
- Domain Vocabulary Across Subject Areas soft
Drawing inferences from complex texts requires academic vocabulary for reasoning about evidence and argument
- Discussing and Questioning New Words hard
Academic and domain-specific vocabulary acquisition builds on the habit of discussing word meanings and linking new vocabulary to known words
- Defining Words soft
Defining academic words requires the ability to define words by category and attribute
- How Many in Total? soft
Sorting and categorising objects uses the same counting/cardinality skills from maths
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- How Language Choices Affect the Reader hard
KS3 figurative language analysis extends KS2 evaluating how authors use figurative language
- Listening to Texts Read Aloud hard
Recognising literary language requires listening comprehension of stories/poetry
- How Many in Total? soft
Sorting and categorising objects uses the same counting/cardinality skills from maths
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Similes & Metaphors hard
Evaluating figurative language requires understanding similes and metaphors
- Expressive and Sensory Language soft
Literary language recognition provides context for understanding how similes and metaphors function within texts
- Listening to Texts Read Aloud hard
Recognising literary language requires listening comprehension of stories/poetry
- How Many in Total? soft
Sorting and categorising objects uses the same counting/cardinality skills from maths
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Literal vs Figurative Language hard
Identifying similes and metaphors requires the ability to distinguish literal from figurative language
- Expressive and Sensory Language hard
Distinguishing literal from nonliteral builds on recognising literary language and sensory words
- Listening to Texts Read Aloud hard
Recognising literary language requires listening comprehension of stories/poetry
- How Many in Total? soft
Sorting and categorising objects uses the same counting/cardinality skills from maths
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Shades of Meaning soft
Understanding figurative language connects to distinguishing shades of meaning
- How Many in Total? soft
Sorting and categorising objects uses the same counting/cardinality skills from maths
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Writing Craft Vocabulary soft
Choosing vivid and precise words to create effects requires understanding 'technique', 'tone', and 'style'
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Using talk to explore ideas and speculate requires noticing what you don't yet understand — the comprehension-monitoring habit in a spoken register
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Rehearsing and Varying Sentences hard
Choosing words for effect builds on oral rehearsal and vocabulary building
- Writing Process Vocabulary soft
Rehearsing sentences orally draws on 'compose', 'sentence', and 'vocabulary' as process vocabulary
- Saying Sentences Before Writing Them hard
Oral rehearsal with dialogue and varied structures builds on basic oral sentence composition
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Using talk to explore ideas and speculate requires noticing what you don't yet understand — the comprehension-monitoring habit in a spoken register
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
- Cohesion and Transitions Across Writing hard
Writing arguments with logically organised reasons, acknowledged counterclaims, and a formal concluding statement requires command of varied transitions, cohesive devices, and paragraph-linking strategies
- Pronouns for clarity soft
Pronoun cohesion is a key cohesive device; prior work on choosing pronouns for clarity feeds directly into paragraph-level cohesion
- Organising Writing into Paragraphs hard
Cohesion within paragraphs requires paragraphing knowledge; learners must organise text into paragraphs before learning to build cohesion within them
- Expressing Feelings with Words soft
Writing about real events draws on the ability to put feelings into words — the SEL skill of expressing emotions verbally before encoding them in written form
- Triggers and Causes of Feelings soft
Expressing feelings in words benefits from understanding triggers
- Naming Basic Emotions soft
Calming strategies benefit from naming the emotion you're trying to manage
- Words for Big Feelings hard
Calming strategies (calm, breathe, settle) rely on knowing this vocabulary to name and apply the techniques
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Informative writing requires knowing 'genre', 'audience', 'purpose', and 'detail' as concepts
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Using talk to explore ideas and speculate requires noticing what you don't yet understand — the comprehension-monitoring habit in a spoken register
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
- Simple Stories with Beginning and Ending hard
Writing about real events builds on narrative writing skills
- Rote counting to 100 soft
Sequencing events in narrative writing draws on the ordinal/sequential thinking developed through counting
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing simple narratives requires 'narrative', 'sequence', 'beginning', 'middle', 'ending' as shared vocabulary
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Using talk to explore ideas and speculate requires noticing what you don't yet understand — the comprehension-monitoring habit in a spoken register
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing for different purposes requires the vocabulary of purpose, genre, recount, and instruction
- Simple Stories with Beginning and Ending hard
Organising paragraphs requires narrative writing ability
- Rote counting to 100 soft
Sequencing events in narrative writing draws on the ordinal/sequential thinking developed through counting
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing simple narratives requires 'narrative', 'sequence', 'beginning', 'middle', 'ending' as shared vocabulary
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Using talk to explore ideas and speculate requires noticing what you don't yet understand — the comprehension-monitoring habit in a spoken register
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Organising into paragraphs requires 'paragraph', 'heading', 'theme', and 'organisation' as named concepts
- Paragraph Cohesion hard
KS3 transitions build on KS2 cohesive devices across paragraphs with ellipsis
- Pronouns for clarity soft
Pronoun cohesion is a key cohesive device; prior work on choosing pronouns for clarity feeds directly into paragraph-level cohesion
- Organising Writing into Paragraphs hard
Cohesion within paragraphs requires paragraphing knowledge; learners must organise text into paragraphs before learning to build cohesion within them
- Expressing Feelings with Words soft
Writing about real events draws on the ability to put feelings into words — the SEL skill of expressing emotions verbally before encoding them in written form
- Triggers and Causes of Feelings soft
Expressing feelings in words benefits from understanding triggers
- Naming Basic Emotions soft
Calming strategies benefit from naming the emotion you're trying to manage
- Words for Big Feelings hard
Calming strategies (calm, breathe, settle) rely on knowing this vocabulary to name and apply the techniques
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Informative writing requires knowing 'genre', 'audience', 'purpose', and 'detail' as concepts
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
- Simple Stories with Beginning and Ending hard
Writing about real events builds on narrative writing skills
- Rote counting to 100 soft
Sequencing events in narrative writing draws on the ordinal/sequential thinking developed through counting
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing simple narratives requires 'narrative', 'sequence', 'beginning', 'middle', 'ending' as shared vocabulary
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing for different purposes requires the vocabulary of purpose, genre, recount, and instruction
- Simple Stories with Beginning and Ending hard
Organising paragraphs requires narrative writing ability
- Rote counting to 100 soft
Sequencing events in narrative writing draws on the ordinal/sequential thinking developed through counting
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing simple narratives requires 'narrative', 'sequence', 'beginning', 'middle', 'ending' as shared vocabulary
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Using talk to explore ideas and speculate requires noticing what you don't yet understand — the comprehension-monitoring habit in a spoken register
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Organising into paragraphs requires 'paragraph', 'heading', 'theme', and 'organisation' as named concepts
- Fronted Adverbials and Commas soft
Fronted adverbials are one of the key mechanisms for linking paragraphs (e.g. Meanwhile, Later that day)
- Expressing Time, Place and Cause hard
Fronted adverbials build on understanding conjunctions, adverbs, and prepositions to express time and cause
- Joining Words with 'And' hard
Must be able to join with 'and' before learning subordination and other co-ordinating conjunctions
- Cohesion within paragraphs hard
Linking across paragraphs builds on within-paragraph cohesion; learners must achieve cohesion within paragraphs before linking between them
- Pronouns for clarity soft
Pronoun cohesion is a key cohesive device; prior work on choosing pronouns for clarity feeds directly into paragraph-level cohesion
- Organising Writing into Paragraphs hard
Cohesion within paragraphs requires paragraphing knowledge; learners must organise text into paragraphs before learning to build cohesion within them
- Expressing Feelings with Words soft
Writing about real events draws on the ability to put feelings into words — the SEL skill of expressing emotions verbally before encoding them in written form
- Triggers and Causes of Feelings soft
Expressing feelings in words benefits from understanding triggers
- Naming Basic Emotions soft
Calming strategies benefit from naming the emotion you're trying to manage
- Words for Big Feelings hard
Calming strategies (calm, breathe, settle) rely on knowing this vocabulary to name and apply the techniques
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Informative writing requires knowing 'genre', 'audience', 'purpose', and 'detail' as concepts
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
- Simple Stories with Beginning and Ending hard
Writing about real events builds on narrative writing skills
- Rote counting to 100 soft
Sequencing events in narrative writing draws on the ordinal/sequential thinking developed through counting
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing simple narratives requires 'narrative', 'sequence', 'beginning', 'middle', 'ending' as shared vocabulary
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing for different purposes requires the vocabulary of purpose, genre, recount, and instruction
- Simple Stories with Beginning and Ending hard
Organising paragraphs requires narrative writing ability
- Rote counting to 100 soft
Sequencing events in narrative writing draws on the ordinal/sequential thinking developed through counting
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing simple narratives requires 'narrative', 'sequence', 'beginning', 'middle', 'ending' as shared vocabulary
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Organising into paragraphs requires 'paragraph', 'heading', 'theme', and 'organisation' as named concepts
- Linking paragraphs with adverbials hard
Cross-paragraph linking extends KS2 linking ideas across paragraphs with adverbials
- Fronted Adverbials and Commas soft
Fronted adverbials are one of the key mechanisms for linking paragraphs (e.g. Meanwhile, Later that day)
- Expressing Time, Place and Cause hard
Fronted adverbials build on understanding conjunctions, adverbs, and prepositions to express time and cause
- Joining Words with 'And' hard
Must be able to join with 'and' before learning subordination and other co-ordinating conjunctions
- Cohesion within paragraphs hard
Linking across paragraphs builds on within-paragraph cohesion; learners must achieve cohesion within paragraphs before linking between them
- Pronouns for clarity soft
Pronoun cohesion is a key cohesive device; prior work on choosing pronouns for clarity feeds directly into paragraph-level cohesion
- Organising Writing into Paragraphs hard
Cohesion within paragraphs requires paragraphing knowledge; learners must organise text into paragraphs before learning to build cohesion within them
- Expressing Feelings with Words soft
Writing about real events draws on the ability to put feelings into words — the SEL skill of expressing emotions verbally before encoding them in written form
- Triggers and Causes of Feelings soft
Expressing feelings in words benefits from understanding triggers
- Naming Basic Emotions soft
Calming strategies benefit from naming the emotion you're trying to manage
- Words for Big Feelings hard
Calming strategies (calm, breathe, settle) rely on knowing this vocabulary to name and apply the techniques
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Informative writing requires knowing 'genre', 'audience', 'purpose', and 'detail' as concepts
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
- Simple Stories with Beginning and Ending hard
Writing about real events builds on narrative writing skills
- Rote counting to 100 soft
Sequencing events in narrative writing draws on the ordinal/sequential thinking developed through counting
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing simple narratives requires 'narrative', 'sequence', 'beginning', 'middle', 'ending' as shared vocabulary
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing for different purposes requires the vocabulary of purpose, genre, recount, and instruction
- Simple Stories with Beginning and Ending hard
Organising paragraphs requires narrative writing ability
- Rote counting to 100 soft
Sequencing events in narrative writing draws on the ordinal/sequential thinking developed through counting
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing simple narratives requires 'narrative', 'sequence', 'beginning', 'middle', 'ending' as shared vocabulary
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Using talk to explore ideas and speculate requires noticing what you don't yet understand — the comprehension-monitoring habit in a spoken register
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Organising into paragraphs requires 'paragraph', 'heading', 'theme', and 'organisation' as named concepts
- Choosing Form and Tone for Your Audience hard
Argument writing extends KS2 identifying audience and purpose
- Writing Craft Vocabulary hard
Identifying audience, purpose, form, tone, and register before writing requires all these as named vocabulary
- Formal and Informal English soft
Formal/informal register awareness supports matching tone to audience and purpose
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Using talk to explore ideas and speculate requires noticing what you don't yet understand — the comprehension-monitoring habit in a spoken register
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Planning Ideas Before Writing hard
Identifying audience and purpose before writing builds on general planning skills; the step up is from planning content to strategically matching form and tone to audience
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Using talk to explore ideas and speculate requires noticing what you don't yet understand — the comprehension-monitoring habit in a spoken register
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Expressing Feelings with Words soft
Writing about real events draws on the ability to put feelings into words — the SEL skill of expressing emotions verbally before encoding them in written form
- Triggers and Causes of Feelings soft
Expressing feelings in words benefits from understanding triggers
- Naming Basic Emotions soft
Calming strategies benefit from naming the emotion you're trying to manage
- Words for Big Feelings hard
Calming strategies (calm, breathe, settle) rely on knowing this vocabulary to name and apply the techniques
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Informative writing requires knowing 'genre', 'audience', 'purpose', and 'detail' as concepts
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Using talk to explore ideas and speculate requires noticing what you don't yet understand — the comprehension-monitoring habit in a spoken register
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
- Simple Stories with Beginning and Ending hard
Writing about real events builds on narrative writing skills
- Rote counting to 100 soft
Sequencing events in narrative writing draws on the ordinal/sequential thinking developed through counting
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing simple narratives requires 'narrative', 'sequence', 'beginning', 'middle', 'ending' as shared vocabulary
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Using talk to explore ideas and speculate requires noticing what you don't yet understand — the comprehension-monitoring habit in a spoken register
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing for different purposes requires the vocabulary of purpose, genre, recount, and instruction
- Simple Stories with Beginning and Ending hard
Organising paragraphs requires narrative writing ability
- Rote counting to 100 soft
Sequencing events in narrative writing draws on the ordinal/sequential thinking developed through counting
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing simple narratives requires 'narrative', 'sequence', 'beginning', 'middle', 'ending' as shared vocabulary
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Using talk to explore ideas and speculate requires noticing what you don't yet understand — the comprehension-monitoring habit in a spoken register
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Organising into paragraphs requires 'paragraph', 'heading', 'theme', and 'organisation' as named concepts
- Expressing Feelings with Words soft
Writing about real events draws on the ability to put feelings into words — the SEL skill of expressing emotions verbally before encoding them in written form
- Triggers and Causes of Feelings soft
Expressing feelings in words benefits from understanding triggers
- Naming Basic Emotions soft
Calming strategies benefit from naming the emotion you're trying to manage
- Words for Big Feelings hard
Calming strategies (calm, breathe, settle) rely on knowing this vocabulary to name and apply the techniques
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Informative writing requires knowing 'genre', 'audience', 'purpose', and 'detail' as concepts
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Using talk to explore ideas and speculate requires noticing what you don't yet understand — the comprehension-monitoring habit in a spoken register
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
- Simple Stories with Beginning and Ending hard
Writing about real events builds on narrative writing skills
- Rote counting to 100 soft
Sequencing events in narrative writing draws on the ordinal/sequential thinking developed through counting
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing simple narratives requires 'narrative', 'sequence', 'beginning', 'middle', 'ending' as shared vocabulary
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Using talk to explore ideas and speculate requires noticing what you don't yet understand — the comprehension-monitoring habit in a spoken register
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing for different purposes requires the vocabulary of purpose, genre, recount, and instruction
- Simple Stories with Beginning and Ending soft
Experience with narrative writing supports planning narratives
- Rote counting to 100 soft
Sequencing events in narrative writing draws on the ordinal/sequential thinking developed through counting
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Writing simple narratives requires 'narrative', 'sequence', 'beginning', 'middle', 'ending' as shared vocabulary
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Using talk to explore ideas and speculate requires noticing what you don't yet understand — the comprehension-monitoring habit in a spoken register
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Planning before writing requires 'plan', 'draft', 'compose', 'sequence', and 'key words' as working vocabulary
- Expressing & Justifying Opinions soft
Oral expression skills support understanding formality in speech
- Exploring Ideas Through Talk soft
Conversational skills provide foundation for evaluating viewpoints
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Using talk to explore ideas and speculate requires noticing what you don't yet understand — the comprehension-monitoring habit in a spoken register
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Writing Process Vocabulary hard
Oral composition requires vocabulary like 'compose', 'sentence', and 'sequence' to participate meaningfully in the exercise
- Author's word choices soft
Identifying audience and purpose before writing requires understanding how authorial choices shape reader experience — you are now making those choices deliberately
- Connecting New & Old Ideas soft
Recognising how authorial choices create effects requires connecting your reading experience to existing knowledge of how language and texts work
- Thinking Before Starting hard
Making connections between new and old ideas requires the habit of activating prior knowledge first
- Persisting When It's Hard hard
Activating prior knowledge requires the foundational habit of persistent engagement with new material
- Monitoring Comprehension hard
Recognising authorial effects requires reading for meaning rather than just decoding — you can only notice the effect of a word choice if you are genuinely engaging with meaning
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Noticing the decoding/understanding gap is the English-specific form of the universal comprehension-monitoring habit
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Reading for Meaning hard
Noticing the gap between decoding and understanding requires first having the foundational idea that reading means making meaning
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Understanding that reading means making meaning is the English-domain grounding of the universal habit of noticing when you don't understand
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Planning a Task soft
Identifying audience and purpose before writing is the writing-domain form of the universal planning habit
- Checking Your Own Work hard
Planning before a task grows from the habit of checking back after finishing — both are self-regulatory bookends
- Checking Sources Against Each Other soft
Comparing archaeological evidence from worker villages against popular myths requires corroborating across multiple source types
- Different Accounts of the Same Event soft
Corroboration builds directly on the understanding that accounts can differ — it is the systematic practice of comparing those differences
- Evidence from the Past hard
Recognising that accounts can differ requires first understanding that accounts exist because people left behind evidence
- Thinking Before Starting soft
Understanding that knowledge of the past comes from surviving evidence builds on the habit of activating prior knowledge — what do I already know, and where did that knowledge come from?
- Persisting When It's Hard hard
Activating prior knowledge requires the foundational habit of persistent engagement with new material
- Vocabulary: historical thinking hard
Understanding that everything we know comes from evidence requires 'evidence' and 'source' vocabulary
- Domain Vocabulary Across Subject Areas soft
Acquiring the specialist vocabulary of historical thinking (source, bias, chronology, corroborate) builds on the academic vocabulary development taught in English
- Discussing and Questioning New Words hard
Academic and domain-specific vocabulary acquisition builds on the habit of discussing word meanings and linking new vocabulary to known words
- Defining Words soft
Defining academic words requires the ability to define words by category and attribute
- How Many in Total? soft
Sorting and categorising objects uses the same counting/cardinality skills from maths
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Comparing Characters Across Stories soft
Recognising that different people give different accounts of the same event is the historical application of the English skill of comparing and contrasting two texts on the same topic
- Connecting New & Old Ideas soft
Comparing and contrasting characters or texts draws on the universal habit of connecting new ideas to existing knowledge
- Thinking Before Starting hard
Making connections between new and old ideas requires the habit of activating prior knowledge first
- Persisting When It's Hard hard
Activating prior knowledge requires the foundational habit of persistent engagement with new material
- Feelings Change and Differ soft
Comparing characters' adventures and reactions in stories is enriched by the foundational SEL understanding that the same event can make different people feel differently
- Spotting Patterns soft
Identifying patterns and similarities across texts is the reading form of the universal pattern-recognition habit
- Connecting New & Old Ideas soft
Spotting patterns across domains is an extension of the habit of connecting new ideas to existing ones
- Thinking Before Starting hard
Making connections between new and old ideas requires the habit of activating prior knowledge first
- Persisting When It's Hard hard
Activating prior knowledge requires the foundational habit of persistent engagement with new material
- Vocabulary: historical thinking hard
Recognising that different accounts exist requires 'source', 'perspective', and 'interpretation' vocabulary
- Domain Vocabulary Across Subject Areas soft
Acquiring the specialist vocabulary of historical thinking (source, bias, chronology, corroborate) builds on the academic vocabulary development taught in English
- Discussing and Questioning New Words hard
Academic and domain-specific vocabulary acquisition builds on the habit of discussing word meanings and linking new vocabulary to known words
- Defining Words soft
Defining academic words requires the ability to define words by category and attribute
- How Many in Total? soft
Sorting and categorising objects uses the same counting/cardinality skills from maths
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Spotting Patterns soft
Recognising that accounts diverge in systematic ways — based on who is telling the story — is an application of the universal pattern-recognition habit
- Connecting New & Old Ideas soft
Spotting patterns across domains is an extension of the habit of connecting new ideas to existing ones
- Thinking Before Starting hard
Making connections between new and old ideas requires the habit of activating prior knowledge first
- Persisting When It's Hard hard
Activating prior knowledge requires the foundational habit of persistent engagement with new material
- Describing Rules & Patterns soft
Corroboration involves forming a generalisation from multiple instances of evidence — the universal generalisation habit applied to historical sources
- Spotting Patterns hard
Generalising a rule requires first being able to spot the recurring pattern that the rule captures
- Connecting New & Old Ideas soft
Spotting patterns across domains is an extension of the habit of connecting new ideas to existing ones
- Thinking Before Starting hard
Making connections between new and old ideas requires the habit of activating prior knowledge first
- Persisting When It's Hard hard
Activating prior knowledge requires the foundational habit of persistent engagement with new material
- Questioning Historical Sources hard
Corroborating across sources requires first knowing how to evaluate each source individually through sourcing
- Different Accounts of the Same Event hard
Sourcing — asking who made this and why — is the analytical tool for explaining why accounts of the same event differ
- Evidence from the Past hard
Recognising that accounts can differ requires first understanding that accounts exist because people left behind evidence
- Thinking Before Starting soft
Understanding that knowledge of the past comes from surviving evidence builds on the habit of activating prior knowledge — what do I already know, and where did that knowledge come from?
- Persisting When It's Hard hard
Activating prior knowledge requires the foundational habit of persistent engagement with new material
- Vocabulary: historical thinking hard
Understanding that everything we know comes from evidence requires 'evidence' and 'source' vocabulary
- Domain Vocabulary Across Subject Areas soft
Acquiring the specialist vocabulary of historical thinking (source, bias, chronology, corroborate) builds on the academic vocabulary development taught in English
- Discussing and Questioning New Words hard
Academic and domain-specific vocabulary acquisition builds on the habit of discussing word meanings and linking new vocabulary to known words
- Defining Words soft
Defining academic words requires the ability to define words by category and attribute
- How Many in Total? soft
Sorting and categorising objects uses the same counting/cardinality skills from maths
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Comparing Characters Across Stories soft
Recognising that different people give different accounts of the same event is the historical application of the English skill of comparing and contrasting two texts on the same topic
- Connecting New & Old Ideas soft
Comparing and contrasting characters or texts draws on the universal habit of connecting new ideas to existing knowledge
- Thinking Before Starting hard
Making connections between new and old ideas requires the habit of activating prior knowledge first
- Persisting When It's Hard hard
Activating prior knowledge requires the foundational habit of persistent engagement with new material
- Feelings Change and Differ soft
Comparing characters' adventures and reactions in stories is enriched by the foundational SEL understanding that the same event can make different people feel differently
- Spotting Patterns soft
Identifying patterns and similarities across texts is the reading form of the universal pattern-recognition habit
- Connecting New & Old Ideas soft
Spotting patterns across domains is an extension of the habit of connecting new ideas to existing ones
- Thinking Before Starting hard
Making connections between new and old ideas requires the habit of activating prior knowledge first
- Persisting When It's Hard hard
Activating prior knowledge requires the foundational habit of persistent engagement with new material
- Vocabulary: historical thinking hard
Recognising that different accounts exist requires 'source', 'perspective', and 'interpretation' vocabulary
- Domain Vocabulary Across Subject Areas soft
Acquiring the specialist vocabulary of historical thinking (source, bias, chronology, corroborate) builds on the academic vocabulary development taught in English
- Discussing and Questioning New Words hard
Academic and domain-specific vocabulary acquisition builds on the habit of discussing word meanings and linking new vocabulary to known words
- Defining Words soft
Defining academic words requires the ability to define words by category and attribute
- How Many in Total? soft
Sorting and categorising objects uses the same counting/cardinality skills from maths
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Spotting Patterns soft
Recognising that accounts diverge in systematic ways — based on who is telling the story — is an application of the universal pattern-recognition habit
- Connecting New & Old Ideas soft
Spotting patterns across domains is an extension of the habit of connecting new ideas to existing ones
- Thinking Before Starting hard
Making connections between new and old ideas requires the habit of activating prior knowledge first
- Persisting When It's Hard hard
Activating prior knowledge requires the foundational habit of persistent engagement with new material
- Reading between the lines soft
Interrogating historical sources with critical questions builds on the skill of asking and answering questions about key details in non-fiction texts
- Inferring Characters' Feelings and Motives soft
Asking who made a source, when, and why — and interpreting what that means — requires the inference skills developed in English reading comprehension
- Predicting what happens next soft
Drawing inferences about characters' feelings and justifying them with evidence is enriched by prior experience predicting what might happen next — both require reading ahead of the literal text
- Reading between the lines hard
Inferring characters' feelings/motives with evidence builds on identifying key details and making simple inferences
- Self-Correcting While Reading soft
Inferring and justifying inferences with text evidence requires the metacognitive habit of checking that the text makes sense as you read — a reader who doesn't self-monitor will miss the cues on which inference depends
- Monitoring Comprehension soft
Self-correcting while reading requires the awareness that decoding correctly is not the same as understanding
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Noticing the decoding/understanding gap is the English-specific form of the universal comprehension-monitoring habit
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Reading for Meaning hard
Noticing the gap between decoding and understanding requires first having the foundational idea that reading means making meaning
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Understanding that reading means making meaning is the English-domain grounding of the universal habit of noticing when you don't understand
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Checking that a text makes sense while reading and self-correcting is the reading-domain form of the universal comprehension-monitoring habit
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Reading with Expression and Accuracy soft
Reading comprehension monitoring builds on earlier fluency skills
- Blending Sounds to Read Words soft
Blending helps attempt unfamiliar words but sight words bypass phonics
- Story Sequence and Central Message soft
Drawing inferences about motivations is enriched by the prior ability to understand and discuss the sequence of events and connections between them — inference relies on understanding what happened and in what order
- Main Topic of Informational Texts soft
Understanding main topic and key details of informational texts supports discussing how items of information are related
- Reading with Expression and Accuracy soft
Expressive reading supports comprehension of sequence and meaning
- Blending Sounds to Read Words soft
Blending helps attempt unfamiliar words but sight words bypass phonics
- Domain Vocabulary Across Subject Areas soft
Drawing inferences from complex texts requires academic vocabulary for reasoning about evidence and argument
- Discussing and Questioning New Words hard
Academic and domain-specific vocabulary acquisition builds on the habit of discussing word meanings and linking new vocabulary to known words
- Defining Words soft
Defining academic words requires the ability to define words by category and attribute
- How Many in Total? soft
Sorting and categorising objects uses the same counting/cardinality skills from maths
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Vocabulary: historical thinking hard
Evaluating a source requires 'primary source', 'secondary source', 'bias' vocabulary
- Domain Vocabulary Across Subject Areas soft
Acquiring the specialist vocabulary of historical thinking (source, bias, chronology, corroborate) builds on the academic vocabulary development taught in English
- Discussing and Questioning New Words hard
Academic and domain-specific vocabulary acquisition builds on the habit of discussing word meanings and linking new vocabulary to known words
- Defining Words soft
Defining academic words requires the ability to define words by category and attribute
- How Many in Total? soft
Sorting and categorising objects uses the same counting/cardinality skills from maths
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Understanding Why soft
Sourcing is elaborative interrogation applied to historical documents — asking not just what it says but why it was made
- Teaching It Back hard
Asking 'why does this work?' requires first being able to explain what you know — interrogation builds on explanation
- Explaining Mathematical Reasoning soft
The universal self-explanation habit (LtL 7-8) builds on the maths-specific practice of explaining reasoning when prompted (MT 6-7)
- Showing Your Working hard
Age 6-7 explaining with diagrams/logic builds on age 5-6 showing and telling with objects
- Numbers up to 10 into pairs soft
Explaining part-part-whole decompositions exercises showing and telling
- Addition as combining or putting together two hard
Decomposing numbers into pairs requires understanding addition as combining
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Number bonds to 9 soft
Explaining how to find number bonds to 10 exercises showing thinking with objects
- Numbers up to 10 into pairs hard
Making 10 is a specific application of decomposing numbers into pairs
- Addition as combining or putting together two hard
Decomposing numbers into pairs requires understanding addition as combining
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Listening and responding soft
Explaining mathematical reasoning orally requires basic listening and responding skills
- What the equals sign means soft
Determining whether equations are true/false exercises evaluating and justifying
- Reading +, −, and = symbols hard
Deep understanding of = requires already being able to read and write number sentences
- Reading and writing numbers to 20 hard
Writing number sentences requires reading and writing numerals
- How Many in Total? hard
Reading/writing numerals 0–20 requires understanding that numerals represent quantities (cardinality)
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Writing digits 0-9 hard
Writing numerals requires the motor skill of forming digits 0-9 (taught in English handwriting)
- Addition as combining or putting together two hard
Reading/writing the + symbol requires understanding what addition means
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Subtraction as taking away or separating hard
Reading/writing the − symbol requires understanding what subtraction means
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding subtraction as taking away requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Addition as combining or putting together two hard
Understanding commutativity of addition requires understanding addition
- How Many in Total? hard
Understanding addition as combining groups requires knowing numbers represent quantities (cardinality)
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Thinking Before Starting hard
Explaining in your own words requires connecting new learning to existing knowledge already held in mind
- Persisting When It's Hard hard
Activating prior knowledge requires the foundational habit of persistent engagement with new material
- Vocabulary: historical thinking hard
Corroborating sources requires the term 'corroborate' and 'evidence'
- Domain Vocabulary Across Subject Areas soft
Acquiring the specialist vocabulary of historical thinking (source, bias, chronology, corroborate) builds on the academic vocabulary development taught in English
- Discussing and Questioning New Words hard
Academic and domain-specific vocabulary acquisition builds on the habit of discussing word meanings and linking new vocabulary to known words
- Defining Words soft
Defining academic words requires the ability to define words by category and attribute
- How Many in Total? soft
Sorting and categorising objects uses the same counting/cardinality skills from maths
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Evidence-Based Writing soft
Corroborating information across multiple historical sources requires the skill of drawing and evaluating evidence from informational texts, as taught in English
- Short Research Projects soft
Research and note-taking skills support the ability to gather and organise evidence from informational sources
- Writing Process Vocabulary soft
Shared research and writing uses 'genre', 'purpose', 'audience', 'plan', and 'draft' vocabulary
- Writing Craft Vocabulary soft
Research projects require 'evidence', 'argument', 'perspective', and 'purpose' vocabulary
- Representing numbers with objects (age 8+) soft
Cross-subject: independent research projects may involve collecting and presenting data using charts and graphs
- Pictograms and tally charts hard
Constructing simple pictograms/tables is prerequisite to scaled versions
- Pictograms and tally charts (age 6+) hard
Constructing pictograms, tally charts, and bar charts requires these display vocabulary terms
- Sorting into categories hard
Constructing pictograms and tally charts requires classifying and counting objects first
- Comparing groups: more or fewer soft
Sorting categories by count benefits from ability to compare quantities
- Counting objects to 20 soft
Counting a set helps when comparing groups, but younger children (GB age 4) can compare using matching without formal counting to 20
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Counting objects to 20 hard
Counting objects in each category requires being able to count sets of objects
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Sorting Data into Categories soft
Data representation formats (pictograms, tally charts) support organising data
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Pictograms and tally charts (age 6+) hard
Organising and representing data requires data, tally, frequency, and category vocabulary
- Sorting into categories hard
Organising data in categories builds on classifying and counting objects in categories
- Comparing groups: more or fewer soft
Sorting categories by count benefits from ability to compare quantities
- Counting objects to 20 soft
Counting a set helps when comparing groups, but younger children (GB age 4) can compare using matching without formal counting to 20
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Counting objects to 20 hard
Counting objects in each category requires being able to count sets of objects
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Pictograms and tally charts (age 6+) hard
Drawing scaled bar charts and pictograms requires axis, scale, label, and frequency vocabulary
- Sorting Data into Categories hard
Drawing picture/bar graphs extends organising and representing data
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Pictograms and tally charts (age 6+) hard
Organising and representing data requires data, tally, frequency, and category vocabulary
- Sorting into categories hard
Organising data in categories builds on classifying and counting objects in categories
- Comparing groups: more or fewer soft
Sorting categories by count benefits from ability to compare quantities
- Counting objects to 20 soft
Counting a set helps when comparing groups, but younger children (GB age 4) can compare using matching without formal counting to 20
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Counting objects to 20 hard
Counting objects in each category requires being able to count sets of objects
- One-to-one counting hard
Cardinality principle builds on one-to-one correspondence — you must count correctly to know the last number tells 'how many'
- Main Ideas & Note-Taking soft
Note-taking for research benefits from summarising and recording skills
- Main Topic of Informational Texts hard
Summarising builds on identifying main topic in informational texts
- Self-Correcting While Reading soft
Retrieving and summarising main ideas from multi-paragraph texts requires active self-monitoring comprehension — noticing when something doesn't make sense and re-reading to fix it
- Monitoring Comprehension soft
Self-correcting while reading requires the awareness that decoding correctly is not the same as understanding
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Noticing the decoding/understanding gap is the English-specific form of the universal comprehension-monitoring habit
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Reading for Meaning hard
Noticing the gap between decoding and understanding requires first having the foundational idea that reading means making meaning
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Understanding that reading means making meaning is the English-domain grounding of the universal habit of noticing when you don't understand
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Feeling of not understanding soft
Checking that a text makes sense while reading and self-correcting is the reading-domain form of the universal comprehension-monitoring habit
- Asking for Help hard
Noticing confusion and acting on it requires already knowing that asking for help is a valid response to being stuck
- Reading with Expression and Accuracy soft
Reading comprehension monitoring builds on earlier fluency skills
- Blending Sounds to Read Words soft
Blending helps attempt unfamiliar words but sight words bypass phonics
- Story Sequence and Central Message hard
Identifying main ideas from multiple paragraphs and summarising builds on the prior skill of discussing sequence of events and how information items are related in shorter texts
- Main Topic of Informational Texts soft
Understanding main topic and key details of informational texts supports discussing how items of information are related
- Reading with Expression and Accuracy soft
Expressive reading supports comprehension of sequence and meaning
- Blending Sounds to Read Words soft
Blending helps attempt unfamiliar words but sight words bypass phonics
- Main Topic of Informational Texts hard
Non-fiction structures build on Y1 informational text main topic
- Main Topic & Key Details hard
Drawing evidence from informational texts requires the ability to identify main ideas across paragraphs
- Main Topic of Informational Texts hard
Multi-paragraph main idea analysis builds on identifying main topic and key details in simpler texts
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